Mustafa

Había una mujer muy chiquita que se llamaba Chiquitín. Chiquitín vivía abajo de una calle. La calle estaba en una ciudad arábica, Mustafa. En Mustafa había mucho sol, y era muy caliente. Habían muchas personas en Mustafa que podrían hacer juegos malabares con espadas. También habían otras que podrían hacerlo con antorchas. Chiquitín no tenía ningún centavo, y necesitaba robar comida cada día. Era muy fácil para Chiquitín porque ella era muy baja, y las personas no podrían verla cuando ella robaba la comida. Cuando las personas miraban a Chiquitín, ella les mordía a los dedos del pie, y se escapaba. Había una persona que se llamaba Pumba. Un día, Pumba fue al Mustafa. Pumba era muy grande, y tenía una voz muy baja. Un día, Chiquitín intentó robar comida de Pumba. Pumba pudó sentir a Chiquitín, y la vio por debajo. Cuando Pumba vio para abajo, Chiquitín le picó a los dedos de Pumba muy rápidamente, pero Pumba la agaró antes que élla hiciera mucho daño. -¿Por qué estás robando comida de esas personas?- Pumba le preguntó a Chiquitín. -Porque yo no tengo comida, y por eso, necesito robar mis cosas,- respondió Chiquitín. -¿Es verdad?- -Si, es verdad.- -¿Por que le estás picando a los dedos de las personas?- -Es una manera de escapar.- Si quieres comida, debieras preguntarme.- -¡No, yo no le pregunto a nadie!- En este momento, Pumba picó a Chiquitín. -Por que haces eso?- preguntó Chiquitín. -Para que supiste como me siento,- repondio Pumba. -Mis dedos de mi pie me duelen mucho. Lo siento, Persona Grande. Que es tu nombre?- -Me llamo Pumba.- -Me llamo Chiquitín. ¿Puedo tener un poquito de tu comida, Pumba?- -Absolutamente.-


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Mountain Gorillas

Half man and half beast. This is what is usually said about the gorilla. They say that the gorilla is related to us. You can find mountain gorillas in the Virunga Volcanoes, which are located on the boundaries of Zaire, Rwanda, and Uganda. The Virungas are 600 miles of tropical rainforest. You’ll find then roaming around 7,800 and 11,000 feet, but at low elevations. The gorillas live in units. Most of the units consist of about 6-12 members in it, most of them being related in some way. With each unit, there is a leader, usually an old silverback, who was a virtual dictator. A silverback male has large canines and he may weigh 400 pounds. He is the one who decides when to proceed, and when to stop, and which direction to go. When he sleeps, everyone else is supposed to be sleeping to, and then he gives a signal to wake up. When the old silverback gets too old, then his eldest son usually is the one to take over. The females are usually responsible for the nursing portion in the unit. Gorillas are peaceful and tolerant by nature. Whenever two groups meet, they either ignore each other, or they give each other a grumpy grunt. Sometimes the two groups would even stay together, and then eventually separate. There are many rumors about gorillas being very violent, but there are no reports about it. There are times when they have little mock fights, but there is never any blood shed in them. Right now there are not too many mountain gorillas you will find in the Virungas. Their population is only in the hundreds. In 1960, there was an estimated 450 gorillas still remaining in two isolated habitats. In a 1981 census, it gave a figure of about 254 gorillas. Right now there is somewhere between 400-450 mountain gorillas that have survived. There are so few of these creatures for many reasons. There are many poachers who kill the gorillas for their head or hands to sell to tourists as a souvenir, or hunter that kill them to have a trophy. With so much of this going on, the rangers of the parks so not think there will be anymore of these gorillas left by the end of the century. There have been a few projects and conservation groups made to save this endangered species. The Washington-based African Wildlife Foundation, started a program in the parks on park security, to prevent as much poaching. The tourist program also developed rapidly. They went from 1,352 paid visitors in 1978 to 5,790 in 1984. With the help of the money from tourism, they were able to start some programs on the conservation of the mountain gorillas. The basic issues of the groups and programs are human population and the way land is used. The future for the gorillas look very bleak. Illegal logging, gold prospecting, and hunting has become more and more popular where the gorillas live. To assure gorillas a future will require a dedication that can not just be done through projects or even years or centuries, but it takes a commitment for the rest of eternity. BIBLIOGRAPHY Baumgartel, Walter. Up Among the Mountain Gorillas. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1976. Fossey, Dian. Gorillas in the Mist. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1983. Patterson, Francine. The Education of Koko. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1981. Schaller, George B. Gorilla: Struggle for Survival in the Virungas. New York: Aperture Book, 1989. BibliographyBaumgartel, Walter. Up Among the Mountain Gorillas. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1976. Fossey, Dian. Gorillas in the Mist. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1983. Patterson, Francine. The Education of Koko. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1981. Schaller, George B. Gorilla: Struggle for Survival in the Virungas. New York: Aperture Book, 1989.

Words: 582

Lynx

Lynx by Cody White Academic Orientation Mr. Keown period 7 December 19, 1997 With a pounce and a hop the speedy lynx chases the bleached white hare through the bushes. Poof! The hare disappears into the shiny white powder. Then the sly lynx picks up the scent of the hare and pounces toward the small hairball. The sharp elongated claws don’t dig in, and the hare’s long slender legs launch himself out of the hole and out of danger. The swift cat swings his claws around to hit the fast hare, but he hits the snow right under his back legs. The hare runs right between two willow trees and into a narrow opening which has a bunch of fallen willow trees. The hare has escaped from the lynx this one time, but the lynx will find other food. The lynx is a pale brown to brownish grey with black streaks on its neck, forehead, and on the back. It has a short tail, long tuffed ears, long slender legs, wide feet for control in the snow, and long very soft fur. The lynx will grow to be 30 to 40 inches long, and 24 to 28 inches high from feet to shoulders. They usually weight 15 to 45 pounds. When you see the lynx, at first sight, it looks gaunt and lanky, but it is really fast and muscular. The back legs are longer than the fore legs for better pouncing ability. “From the front the lynx looks royal with its hair on its face coming out to two points” (Myers 136). The lynx is closely related to the bobcat, which populates the north American region. The bobcat does not have big fluffy paws, or is not as big as the lynx in relative size. They have two different food varieties. The lynx eats hares ,and also may prey on small deer, dall sheep, grouse, mice. Rarely they feed on fish. On the other hand bobcats feed on grouse , fish, and other small rodents. Lynx chase and still hunt their prey. They chase hares or they stay up on cliffs and branches, and waiting to pounce on the animal as it goes by. The lynx ranges from Alaska, all the way across Canada. The lynx are usually found in climax forests and dense undercovers. They are usually found where hares are abundant. If there are no hares in the vicinity, they travel out into the tundra to find food. “Lynx breed during March and April. The gestation period is 60 days long” ( Myers 135) . They will have from 1- 4 kittens each year. They usually have dens, where they keep their kittens, in hollow trees or under a pile of brush. The kittens stay with the female until well into the next winter. The kittens don’t open their eyes until 10 days after birth. They also only nurse for 3 to 4 months. When the population of the hares are up the litters of 2 to 4 kittens have a lot better chance to survive in the wilderness with their parents. When food is not abundant the female lynx might not have a litter at all that year or not until the hares have come back. Lynx usually are silent, but the males make a screeching noise to find a mate during breeding season. The weird thing about the lynx is when it is in a trap. It doesn’t make a sound. It sits there calmly accepting its death. The Lynx are sly creatures that prowl at night to find their food. That is usually the reason why people don’t see the lynx out in the wilderness a lot. The lynx are sensitive to bright light, because their eyes are made to see at night. Adult males usually hunt alone, not in packs like wolves.The females usually hunt with their family if the kittens are old enough to go along. The kits hunt with their mother and learn skills from her until they leave in the fallowing winter. The huge feet of the lynx give it superb agility in the snow. The lynx has been known to chase down slow clumsy fox that has slim and slender feet that don’t give them any leverage on top of the snow. Trapping lynx is not particularly easy. Trappers use both snares and traps on the lynx. An abundant number of hares means there will be a lot of lynx that year. In the years when lynx are abundant, a good trapper may take a dozen in a month. The fine fur of the lynx is used to make fine coats, collars, coat trimmings, jackets, hats, and muffs. The average cost of a lynx pelt is $125 ( a nice large male coat with good dark colors). “Every year trappers take from $8,000 to $10,000 in money from lynx pelts” (Reader 52). My family (Jacob , Dad, and I) use cubby’s to catch our lynx. A cubby is a den made out of sticks with one trap on the ground and the bait in the back. A cubby is usually 4 feet high and 3 feet wide so the lynx has a pretty good chance of getting his foot caught in a trap. We usually use ptarmagin wings Which were shot earlier in the year. Trappers in the small villages of Alaska eat the pale lynx meat that tastes like veal (they say). When the trapper gets the fur, he usually puts it in a bag with flea killer to get rid of all the bugs on the lynx's pelt. The population of lynx vary all over the state as the population of hares move, the lynx follow. The population of lynx may vary from the climate and the water sources to the dense under cover of forests. One place in the Tanana Valley may have all the things that a lynx needs so there will be lots of kits born and the population will increase. Ten miles from that spot there may be no lynx because of the lack of resources. Most of the lynx are caught in the Upper Tanana-White River country and south to the Alaska Range. This report I found was really interesting, and even though I trap lynx there is lots that I don’t know about these sly creatures. These tricky mammals have lots of things that amaze me like they may eat big animals like dall sheep and deer. Overall I think that lynx are one of my favorite animals in Alaska. Bibliography1.“Alaska,”National Geographic, (May 1994) vol.185,p.89. 2. “Lynx,” Alaska Mammals, (December 1981) vol.8, p.52. 3. “Lynx,” Collier’s Encyclopedia, P.F. Collier & Jon LTD.,1983, vol.15, pp.135-136.


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Key Deer

The Key Deer is a small species (in population and in stature) of deer that lives in the Florida Keys. It is in the same family as the Virginia white tailed deer. The Key Deer is about 26 inches tall and weigh an average of about 55 pounds. The males have antlers, and the antlers grow in cycles. They drop their antlers at the beginning of spring, and they grow back by June. The deer feed on indigenous plants including the red mangrove, the black mangrove, and the white mangrove. The Key Deer can drink water with some salt in it, but needs fresh water to survive. Although it seems awkward, the Key Deer is a fairly good swimmer, and at times will swim from key to key. The Key Deer are endangered for two main reasons, the first and most detrimental is the loss of habitat. The Everglades has been cleared away for highways, and other commercial developments, and it has caused a huge drop in the population of Key Deer, among other animals. Another big reason why Key Deer have been disappearing are the highways in southern Florida. You have heard the expression “like a deer in headlights”, and it is used because when deer see headlights, it freezes. This, although it makes for a good simile, causes a lot of road kill accidents with Key Deer. The National Key Deer Refuge was opened to breed Key Deer, and since its opening, the population has increased by almost %600!!! Also, Ms. Riskin, please make sure that you do not feed any Key Deer, because it causes them to be comfortable around humans, which sounds nice, but it is part of the reason that they hang around near the highway. So, that just about sums it up; thanks for not feeding Key Deer, and keep your foot on those breaks. Bibliography“Key Deer” February, 2000 http://www.shadow.net/~grgreen/glades/deer.html Kirkpatrick, Charles M. “Deer” The World Book Encyclopedia. Volume D, 1986 R., Austin. “Key Deer” February, 2000 http://www.miamisci.org/ecolinks/everglades/keydeerinfo.html

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Horses And How They Grow

Horses and How They Grow Horses are fun to ride, but they can be a lot of hard work. The first horse was the Eohippus. It was about the size of a fox. It can be traced over a period of 60 million years. From America they spread across the world. Then 8-10,000 years ago the horse be-came extinct in America. It was reintroduced by the Spanish Conquistadors in the 16th century. The herds of mustangs in north America is descended from horses introduced by the Spanish in the 16th century. Baby horses are born from a mare horse. The mare holds the baby for 11 or 12 months. Most mares will have 5 or 6 foals during their lives. Normally a foal is born with its front feet first. Foals are born with their eyes open and with a full coat of hair. When the newborn foal is born, it drinks its mother's milk for the first 6 Months. Foals can stand up shortly after birth. It also begins to Supplement its diet by nibbling on grass and it's mother's oats. The best place to feed your horse is in a bucket. A horse must have fresh water and eat oats. A healthy treat for horses is carrots and apples. A horse's age can be told by looking at its teeth. Up to the age of five a horse still has its milk teeth. A foal can be weaned from 4-6 months. Most horses reach their full size by the time they are five years old. The bones from a baby foal are very soft for the first three years. You shouldn't ride a horse until it is three years old because you can sway its back. When the owner weans the foal he separates it from the mother, and puts it out to the pasture with other foals. A baby girl horse is a filly, and when she is mature she is called a mare. A baby boy horse is a colt. When he is mature, he is called a stallion. A yearling is a one-year-old horse. Training horses requires great skill and patience. It begins almost immediately after it is born. You should put a halter on it, and teach it to lead and to tie up to fences and to stand. Horses grow up with help from their mothers and lots of help are grown up you can have fun riding them and they can be a friend to you.

Words: 415

Horses And How They Grow

Horses and How They Grow Horses are fun to ride, but they can be a lot of hard work. The first horse was the Eohippus. It was about the size of a fox. It can be traced over a period of 60 million years. From America they spread across the world. Then 8-10,000 years ago the horse be-came extinct in America. It was reintroduced by the Spanish Conquistadors in the 16th century. The herds of mustangs in north America is descended from horses introduced by the Spanish in the 16th century. Baby horses are born from a mare horse. The mare holds the baby for 11 or 12 months. Most mares will have 5 or 6 foals during their lives. Normally a foal is born with its front feet first. Foals are born with their eyes open and with a full coat of hair. When the newborn foal is born, it drinks its mother's milk for the first 6 Months. Foals can stand up shortly after birth. It also begins to Supplement its diet by nibbling on grass and it's mother's oats. The best place to feed your horse is in a bucket. A horse must have fresh water and eat oats. A healthy treat for horses is carrots and apples. A horse's age can be told by looking at its teeth. Up to the age of five a horse still has its milk teeth. A foal can be weaned from 4-6 months. Most horses reach their full size by the time they are five years old. The bones from a baby foal are very soft for the first three years. You shouldn't ride a horse until it is three years old because you can sway its back. When the owner weans the foal he separates it from the mother, and puts it out to the pasture with other foals. A baby girl horse is a filly, and when she is mature she is called a mare. A baby boy horse is a colt. When he is mature, he is called a stallion. A yearling is a one-year-old horse. Training horses requires great skill and patience. It begins almost immediately after it is born. You should put a halter on it, and teach it to lead and to tie up to fences and to stand. Horses grow up with help from their mothers and lots of help are grown up you can have fun riding them and they can be a friend to you.

Words: 415

Honeybees As A Resource

Honeybees as a Resource Honeybees are very useful to humans. As their name suggests, they make the sweet, delicious treat known as honey that we enjoy. They also make beeswax from which we make many useful items. But the most important thing bees do for us is to pollinate the plants. The honeybee visits flowers which secrete a sweet liquid called nectar. This water-like nectar is sipped from the blossoms by the bee and carried to the beehive. The raw nectar goes into the cells in almost the same condition as it was when the bee sipped it from the flowers. It is inside the hive that house bees evaporate the nectar down to the thick consistency which is what we know as commercial honey. We usually think of the main use of honey as a spread on bread, pancakes or biscuits. However, honey has a large use in cooking; such as pastries, canned foods, milk drinks, desserts, frostings, syrups, and salad dressings. Honey contains simple sugars and does not require digestion like regular sugar, so it is useful for quick energy pick up and even for diabetic people. Most honey is sold as extracted honey but it is also sold on the honeycomb which is the wax chambers the bees make in the hive in which to store the honey. The wax comes from a worker bee's belly when she is fourteen to twenty-one days old. The wax chambers are just big enough for a bee to crawl inside. Sometimes people like to eat honeycomb. It can be eaten on toast or as is; then the wax becomes like a chewing gum, but like chewing gum it should not be swallowed. In recent years a new process called the Dyce process has made it possible to make a very nice granulated honey called creamed honey which is gaining in popularity. However, granulated honey is not used much commercially because it is still an almost unknown honey product. Beeswax is the second most important product produced by the honeybees. Beeswax, the earliest of waxes, has been used in the form of candles for lighting. This is today the second largest use of beeswax. The Roman Catholic Church used to require that pure beeswax candles be used in church but as the numbers of churches grew there wasn't enough beeswax available so that now the Catholic Church requires that candles are at least 51 percent beeswax. The reason the church requires beeswax candles is because the candles do not smoke. Probably the largest user of beeswax today is the cosmetic industry. Beeswax is used as the emulsifying agent in face creams, lipsticks, lotions and rouges. It is also used in shoe polish, sporting goods and military hardware. The beekeeper himself is the third largest user of beeswax which he gives to the bees as the base of their new comb. There are 70 or more commercial uses of beeswax today. Each year in the United States some 200 million pounds of honey and four to six million pounds of beeswax are produced. Honeybees are not the only insect that pollinates plants, but they are the best. A lot of our food, such as corn, tomatoes, peas, squash, strawberries, apples, pears, and watermelon would not continue without this pollination. During the last three weeks of a worker bee's life, they fly out of the hives as a forager. The bees take pollen and nectar to the hive and deposit it into cells. During a foraging trip each individual bee will collect pollen from just one kind of plant. By doing this, each bee helps pollinate the blossoms. When the bee crawls around on the blossom, the pollen (containing male plant reproductive cells) clings to fine hairs located on the bee's legs. The pollen is carried from one blossom to another blossom of the same kind of plant, where it sticks to the female part of the flower. Without pollination plants would not produce fruit or seeds. Without seeds now new plants could grow. Pollen is carried in small pollen baskets on the outer sides of the bees legs. In order to fill the baskets with pollen, the bee uses her mouth parts and scrapes the pollen from the blossoms and hairs on her leg to secure it in the basket. The pollen is also known as bee bread. This is because the bee eats the pollen. When bees find a good supply of food they use sign language. They return to the hive and perform a dance to show other bees where to find food. There are two kinds of dances. The round dance tells the other bees that food is about 100 yards away or less. The wagging dance tells bees that food is at such an angle to the sun and how far away the food lies. Tests have been made and even if the food is miles away, this dance is still extremely accurate. For some people bee venom is deadly, but for some people bee venom is good medicine. Some people who have arthritis (a swelling and pain in joints) pick up a bee by her head and hold her tail to the sore joint until the bee stings. The venom makes the joint swell up and this flushes out the arthritis. So as you can see, honeybees give us honey, wax, and comb. They also pollinate our flowers. Therefore they are a very important resource. BibliographyFirst Lessons in BEEKEEPING by C.P. Dadant

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Gray Wolves In Yellowstone

The reintroduction of Gray Wolves into Yellowstone has had many positive affects such as controlling the populations of large game and taking out the small week stupid ones. Some farmers complain about them killing cattle but who cares what they think. The gray wolf, also called the timber wolf, is the largest of about 41 wild species within the dog family, Canidae, of the order Carnivora. All living wolves are considered a single species, Canis lupus. There are 32 recognized subspecies of the gray wolf. Wolf size varies. Adults range from about five to six and a half feet from nose to tip of tail, from 26 to 36 inches high at the shoulders, and weigh from 40 to 175 pounds. Gray wolves aren’t necessarily gray but grizzled gray is the most common color they can also be white, black or red. Wolves are distinguished from dogs by characteristics of the skull. At one time the wolf lived throughout most of the Northern Hemisphere. Most wolf populations are in Canada and Alaska, where they are relatively stable. Of the lower 48 only Minnesota has a wolf population large enough to maintain itself. Wolves live in packs. The Forestry Service reintroduced gray wolves to the northern Rocky Mountains as well as Yellowstone National Park in an attempt to re-establish the species after an absence of more than 60 years. Gray wolves were exterminated from the area by the late 1920s. They are designated as endangered under the Endangered Species Act in most of the lower 48 states. The reintroduction program is a cooperative effort with the National Park Service and USDA Forest Service. Late last century, we realized that something was wrong with the ecosystem in Yellowstone National Park. Without the wolves Yellowstone fails to maintain its natural state. It was made clear that the ecosystem in Yellowstone would never function properly until they were back. They decided that the wolf should be reintroduced into the ecosystem at Yellowstone. Many people, thought that this was foolish. The debate over wolves and Yellowstone has pissed off a lot of people, who will continue to rage for years. Why were wolves reintroduced to Yellowstone? Wolves helped restore Yellowstone's ecosystem to a condition that resembles the way used to be. The wolf, is a large predator, and therefor an important part of the parks ecosystem. Once the population recovered, interactions between predators and prey were restored. The wolves select the weakest and most vulnerable members of the populations of deer, elk, bison,… and kill them. Such actions enhance the health of the parks game species as well as weeding out the wussies. Even with wolves roaming the parks, visitors will rarely see them. They will be able to understand the importance of the wolf and see how the balance of life is essential. The biological factors resulting from reintroducing the wolf are important. However, the wolf itself is a mystery and symbol to mankind. Today, not everyone feels that same way about the wolf and its surroundings. Many don't know and understand the importance of the wolf and its duty. What you do not know you will fear. What one fears, one destroys.

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Frogs

A Frog is a small, tail less animal that has bulging eyes. Almost all frogs have long back legs. The strong hind legs make the frog able to leap farther than the length of its body. Frogs live on every continent except Antarctica, but tropical regions have the greatest number of species. Frogs are classified as amphibians. Most amphibians, including most frogs, spend part of their life as a water animal and part as a land animal. Frogs are related to toads, but are different from them in a few ways. The giant frog of west-central Africa ranks as the largest frog. It measures nearly a foot (30 centimeters) long. The smallest species grow only 1/2 inch (1.3 centimeters) long. Frogs also differ in color. Most kinds are green or brown, but some have colorful markings. Although different species may vary in size or color, almost all frogs have the same basic body structure. They have large hind legs, short front legs, and a flat head and body with no neck. Adult frogs have no tail, though one North American species has a short, tail like structure. Most frogs have a sticky tongue attached to the front part of the mouth. They can rapidly flip out the tongue to capture prey. Frogs have such internal organs as a heart, liver, lungs, and kidneys. Some of the internal organs differ from those of higher animals. A frog's heart has three chambers instead of four. And although adult frogs breathe by means of lungs, they also breathe through their skin. The eggs of different species vary in size, color, and shape. A jelly like substance covers frog eggs, providing a protective coating. This jelly also differs from species to species. Some species of frogs lay several thousand eggs at a time. But only a few of these eggs develop into adult frogs. Ducks, fish, insects, and other water creatures eat many of the eggs. Even if the eggs hatch, the tadpoles also face the danger of being eaten by larger water animals. The pond or stream in which the eggs were laid sometimes dries up. As a result, the tadpoles die. Certain tropical frogs lay their eggs in rain water that collects among the leaves of plants or in holes in trees. Other tropical species attach their eggs to the underside of leaves that grow over water. When the eggs hatch, the tadpoles fall into the water. Among some species, one of the parents carries the eggs until they hatch. For example, the female of certain South American tree frogs carries the eggs on her back. Among another species of frog, the midwife toad, the male carries the eggs wound around his hind legs. Males of another species, Darwin's frog, carry the eggs in their vocal pouch. Some tropical frogs lay their eggs on land. They lay them under logs or dead leaves. These frogs have no tadpole stage. A young frog hatches from the egg and begins life as a land animal. Tadpoles are not completely developed when they hatch. At first, the tadpole clings to some support in the water, using its mouth or a tiny sucker. A tadpole has no neck, and so its head and body look like one round form. The animal has a long tail and resembles a little fish. It breathes by means of gills, which are hidden by a covering of skin. A tadpole's form changes as the animal grows. The tail becomes larger and makes it possible for the animal to swim about to obtain food. Tadpoles eat plants and decaying animal matter. Some tadpoles eat frog eggs and other tadpoles. In time, the tadpole begins to grow legs. The hind legs appear first. Then the lungs begin to develop and the front legs appear. The digestive system changes, enabling the frog that develops to eat live animals. Just before its change into a frog, the tadpole loses its gills. Finally, a tiny frog, still bearing a stump of a tail, comes up from the water. Eventually, the animal absorbs its tail and assumes its adult form. After a frog becomes an adult, it may take a few months to a few years before the animal is mature enough to breed. The green frog and the pickerel frog mature in about three years. In captivity, a bullfrog may live more than 15 years. But few species of frogs live longer than 6 to 8 years in the wild. Many are eaten by such enemies as bats, herons, raccoons, snakes, turtles, and fish. Adult frogs eat mainly insects and other small animals, including earthworms, minnows, and spiders. Most frogs use their sticky tongue to capture prey. The tongue is flipped out of the mouth in response to movement by the prey. Most frogs have teeth only on their upper jaw. Toads lack teeth altogether. As a result, frogs and toads swallow their prey in one piece. To aid in the swallowing process, the frog's eyes sink through openings in the skull and force the food down the throat. More than 20 kinds of true frogs live in the United States. Many of these frogs also live in Canada. A group of related species known as leopard frogs are the most widespread. Leopard frogs range from the Atlantic coast to eastern California and from northern Canada to the Mexican border. The bullfrog, which may grow up to 8 inches (20 centimeters) long, ranks as the largest American and Canadian frog. Other common true frogs of the United States and Canada include the green frog, the pickerel frog, and the wood frog. Unlike most other true frogs, the wood frog spends much of its time away from water. It lives in damp wooded areas of Alaska, Canada, and the Midwestern and Eastern United States. Tree frogs, like true frogs, live on all continents except Antarctica. Most tree frogs measure less than 2 inches (5 centimeters) long and dwell in trees. About 25 species of tree frogs live in the United States. Some of these species are also found in Canada. Common species in the Eastern United States include the green tree frog, the gray tree frog, and the spring peeper. Western tree frogs include the California tree frog, the canyon tree frog, and the Pacific tree frog. Some North American tree frogs, called chorus frogs and cricket frogs, live mainly on the ground. Other frogs of the United States include leptodactylid frogs, narrow-mouthed toads, spadefoot toads, and tailed frogs. Leptodactylid frogs make up a large family of frogs that live mainly in Australia and South America. Those found in the United States include the barking frog, the cliff frog, and the white-lipped frog. The barking frog and the cliff frog live on rocky cliffs in Texas. These frogs lay their eggs under rocks. Tiny frogs hatch from the eggs, without going through the tadpole stage. The white-lipped frog lives in the southern Rio Grande Valley area of Texas. The female white-lipped frog lays her eggs in a hole near water. She then beats the egg jelly into a foam. The tadpoles live in the foam nest until rain washes them into the nearby water. Narrow-mouthed toads live throughout most tropical and subtropical regions. As their name suggests, these frogs have an extremely narrow mouth. The eastern narrow-mouthed toad, the Great Plains narrow-mouthed toad, and the sheep frog are the only members of this family that live in the United States. All three species live in burrows and eat ants and termites. Spadefoot toads live in Asia, Europe, North America, and northwestern Africa. These frogs are called spadefoots because most of them have a sharp-edged spadelike growth on each hind foot. They use this growth as a digging tool. Spadefoot toads live throughout much of the United States. They dwell underground and are usually seen only after a rain. Several species live in dry regions of the Great Plains and the Southwest. These spadefoots may remain in their burrows for weeks at a time to stay moist. They breed following heavy rains, often laying their eggs in temporary ponds. The tadpoles develop rapidly. If enough food is available, tiny adults may emerge in only 12 days. Tailed frogs live in swift mountain streams of the northwestern United States and southwestern Canada. The moving water makes external fertilization of the eggs difficult. Instead, the male uses a tail like structure to fertilize the eggs while they are inside the female. Tadpoles of tailed frogs have a large sucker that enables them to hold on to rocks even in the strongest current. BibliographyWright, Albert H. and A. A. Handbook of Frogs and Toads of the United States and Canada. 3rd ed. 1949. Reprint. Cornell Univ. Pr., 1995.


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Foals: The First Year

Foals: The First Year RUSTY MILLER STATEMENT DESCRIBING CAREER GOALS AND RESEARCH INTERESTS MASTERS IN ANIMAL SCIENCE AUGUST 1, 2000 RESEARCH INTERESTS AND BACKGROUND INFORMATION Introduction: The following is a report on my research information on foal’s nutritional need through there first year of life. This report will also show a research project that I would like to do for my Masters degree I. Nutrition A. Nutritional Requirement 1. Details of general nutrition 2. Requirements B. Other items required for good nutrition 1. Water 2. Energy, Maintenance, & Growth II. Creep Feeding A. Reason for creep feeding foals 1. Why creep feed 2. When to creep feed B. Nutritional advantage for creep feeding 1. The foal’s nutrition needs 2. Foal feeding guidelines 3. The end results III. Research and personal information A. Research project using a group of new born foals 1. Setting up the research project 2. Details of what I’m hoping to prove B. Personal information 1. Background information 2. Detail of work history and professional background Conclusion: Rusty Miller Research project for Masters in Animal Science August 1, 2000 FOALS: THE FIRST YEAR . Feeding should be based on both practical experience and scientific research. Horses are kept for a much longer time than most farm animals and feeding programs must support the development of sound feet and legs to sustain along and athletic life. Nutritional Requirement Although horses obviously utilize hay and other roughage more efficiently then of other non-ruminants such as poultry or pigs. The anatomy of the equine G I tract limits this ability as compared with ruminant. The site of fermentation in horses is the cecum and large intestine, where large number of microorganisms digest hemicelluloses and cellulose utilize protein and non-protein nitrogen and synthesize certain vitamins. Some of the products of fermentation such as volatile fatty acids and use microbial protein synthesized from nitrogen entering the cecum and calm under foes only limited proteolysis and the supply of essential amino acids from an unbalanced dietary nitrogen source is not satisfactorily balanced by microbial ammo acids for optimal growth. Horses therefore depend more on the quality of the diet than do ruminants. Water Water requirements depend largely on environment amount of work being performed nature of the food and physiological states of the horse. Daily consumption by an adult horse typically is 5 to 12 gals. Clean, fresh water should be provided ad lib for all horses. As physical activity increases water consumption increases. If a horse is hot following exercise, it should be allowed to cool before given unlimited access to water. Energy Energy requirement may be classified into these needed for maintenance, growth, pregnancy, lactation, and work. The need for energy differs considerably among individuals some horses and “easy keepers”, while others require prodigious amounts of feed. Thus, these formulas provide only a sound basis for estimating energy needs not the energy needs of any individual horses. Maintenance To maintain body weight and support normal activity, the daily digestible energy requirement of the non working horse weighing 440 - 1322 lb is 1.4 + (0.03 x body wt. in kg) for horses weighing *600kg, daily requirement are 1.82 + (0.0383 x body wt) Growth The DE requirements for growth (to be added to that for maintenance) are estimated from the following equation in which x equal’s age in months and Average Daily Growth equals average daily fain in kg. DE growth (meal/ day = (4.81 + 1.17 x 0.023 x Average Daily Growth Pregnancy Maintenance energy intakes are adequate until the last 90 days of gestation, when most of the fetal tissue growth occurs. During gestation months 9 to 11, D E requirement are estimated by multiplying maintenance requirement by 1-11, 1-13, and 1-20, respectively. Voluntary intake of roughage decreases as the fetus gets larger and it may be necessary to increase the energy density of the diet by using some concentrate. Lactation The It has been estimated that 792 Keal of DE/Kg of milk produced per day should be added to maintenance needs to support lactation. Maintenance needs to support lactation. This level of energy intake has produced increased body weight gain in lactating mares, indicating that it may exceed the minimum requirement for lactation. Some data on average milk production of mares are listed below. Condition of the mare determines desirability of increasing gain. Average Milk Production Months after Foaling Mares Production 0 - 1 13.9 1 - 2 14.7 2 - 3 16.9 3 - 4 15.1 4 - 5 10.9 Protein and Amino Acids Although some amino acid synthesis occurs in the cecum and large intestine, it is not sufficient to meet the amino acid needs of growing, working horses and foals: therefore the protein quality of the feed is important. Weanlings require 2.1g and yearlings 1.9g of lysine meal DE per day. Growing horses have a considerably greater need for protein than mature horses. Also, the protein requirements of growing babies of the heavier breeds are higher at the same body weight than those of the lighter breeds. Fetal growth during the last fourth of pregnancy increases protein requirements some what, while lactation increases requirements still further. Work apparently does not increase the protein requirement, provided that the ratio of crude protein to digestible energy in the diet remains constant and the increased energy requirements are met. However, if the energy requirement is not met, body fat and then muscle is metabolized which results in a net nitrogen loss. Minerals Because the skeleton is of such fundamental importance to performance of the horse mineral requirements deserve careful attention. Excessive intakes of certain minerals may be as harmful as deficiencies: there fore, mineral supplement should be based on composition of the basic feed in the diet. Calcium and phosphorus: The need during growth is much greater than for maintenance of the mature animal. Sodium: Salt requirement is markedly influenced by perspiration loss. 50 to 60 grams of salt may be lost daily in the sweat and 35 grams in the urine of a horse at moderate work. Magnesium: The daily magnesium requirement for maintenance has been estimated at 6.8-mg/lb-body weight. For the growing foal, Magnesium at0.57 g/lb body wt. gain must be added to the maintenance requirement. Potassium: Foals require up to 1% potassium in a purified diet while mature horse require 0.4% potassium in a natural diet (27 mg/lb body weight). Most roughages contain * 1.5% potassium. A diet containing * 35% roughage provides sufficient potassium. Iron: The dietary maintenance requirement for iron is estimated to be 40ppm. For rapidly growing foals and pregnant and lactating mares, the requirement is estimated to be 50ppm CREEP FEEDING Why Creep Feed This can be best explained by looking at the relationship between the nutrient requirements of the suckling foal and the nutrients provided to the via the mare’s milk. During the first few weeks after parturition, the mare provides adequate energy for the foal. During this time, onecan observe the foal nursing, playing, and sleeping on some schedule, perhaps 45 to 60 minutes per cycle. By 2.0 to 2.5 months of age, a sizable difference between the foal’s energy needs and the mare’s production is evident. This is verified by the foal’s interest in consuming other feed stuffs, including the mare’s grain ration, pasture and/or hay. Similar relationships exist for the other nutrients as well. Therefore, the foal restricted to only its mother’s milk would be deficient in not only energy, but also protein. When to Creep Feed Although most foals will start to explore edible materials, and some that are not edible, in its environment within a few days after birth, significant feed intake does not occur for most foals until they are in their second month. At this time, a feeding system that allows the foal to consume its feed and prevents the mare from eating the creep feed is desirable. This is typically a creep feed is desirable. The is typically a creep feeder located in the pasture. Nutritional Advantage for Creep Feeding The Foal’s Nutrition Needs The creep feed should be formulated to provide a high-quality source of nutrients. Undermost circumstances, the foal should be fed the same concentrate that will be used as a weanling feed. This will avoid a ration change at weaning. A 16% to 18% protein concentrate with at least 0.80% lysine, 1.0% calcium, 0.75 phosphorus, and appropriate concentrations of other minerals and partially supplied by milk when it is nursing and it requirements, as percentage of the total diet, decrease as growth rate slows following weaning. Foal Feeding Guidelines As the foal’s dietary requirements shift from milk to feed and forage, your role in providing the proper nutrition gains in importance. Here are some guidelines to help meet the young horse’s needs: 1 . Provide high quality roughage (hay or pasture) free choice. 2 . Supplement with grain or concentrates beginning at about 4 Weeks of age. 3 . Start by feeding 1% of a foal’s body weight per day. ( 1 Pound of feed for each 100 pounds of body weight) 4 . Weigh and adjust the feed ration based on growth and Fitness. A weight tape can help approximate a foal’s size 5 . Foals have small stomachs so divide the daily ration into 2 to 3 feedings. 6 . Make sure feeds contain the proper balance of vitamins, minerals, energy and protein 7 . Use a creep feeder or feed the foal separate from the mare so it can eat its own ration 8 . Remove uneaten portions between feedings 9 . Do not overfeed. Overweight foals are more prone to developmental orthopedic disease (DOD) 10. Provide unlimited fresh, clean water The End Results Creep feeding is good management. Don’t restrict a foal to an inadequate diet while it is most capable of using those nutrients to build a sound body. Creep feeding bridges the gap between the nutrient composition of mare’s milk and foal nutrient needs Research and Personal Information Setting up the research project The project I would like to do is to take a group of foals and divide them into 3 groups. Group A would be taken forms their mothers between 3 and 4 months. The foals would be put into the barn and fed on a program giving them everything they need as far a feed source. These foals also are put on a conditioning program of free and force work. These foals would receive all health care needed, which includes shots and worming program. These foals will be treated as if they are being prepared for the show ring. Group B would be left on their mothers until 5 to 6 months. These Foals would be started on a creep feed program as soon as they are noticed to start to nibble on other food sources. They would only have free exercise in the field with their mothers. They would receive all the vet work including shots and worming program. Group C would also be left on their mothers until 5 to 6 months. These foals would not get any extra feed as in being creep feed. They will get only what they get from their mother feedings mothers milk and grass. These foals would be put on a vet program including shots and a worming program. The foals will be treated like most of the “back yard” foals are treated. All foals will be weighted and measured to have a record on a starting point and reweighed and measured every 2 weeks. All foals selected for this study will be cheeked by a vet to be should all foals are sound and healthy to have an equal playing field. At the end of the 6-month when all foals are off their mothers they all will be weighted and measured for the last time. The top foal from each group will then be pulled into the barn and be put on the same program as the foals from group A. Weighting and measuring will continue on these 3 foals. The 3 foals will be taking to a show in Nov or Dec. End Results This project is to study which group of foals has the best growth, and which group of foals turned out the best at 6 mouths. We will also take a look at the 3 remaining foal at a year old to see if the best foal had any kind of advantage to what program he was in. This study will show if the entire extra work and feed sources made a difference in which foal is the best.


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Falcons In The Uae

Falconry is the upkeep of falcons. It is a very valued tradition in the UAE. Falconry is a sport that came to UAE many years ago. Poor people and rich people enjoyed it. It was a big part of their life in the desert. People think that it came by the muslim Arabs who went to Byzantine and Persia. The falcon is known as the Saqer. It is very loved by the people because of its beauty and lovely eyes. H.H. Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nahyan loves falcons. Falconry is his favourite sport. He says “ falconry is a port that teaches endurance, strength, and patience.” The two main species used for hunting in the UAE are the Saqr falcons (Falco Cherruq) which are brought from other Middle Eastern countries and the Peregrine (Falco Peregrinus) The Saqr is the most popular because it is good for desert hawking. The female Saqr (Al Hurr), which is larger and more powerful is the one which is used more than the male (Garmoush). The female Peregrine (Shahin or Bahri Shahin) is also thought to be better than the male (Shahin Tiba) for hunting purposes. Training falcons requires both courage and patience and it is made possible by the trainer. Ronald Codrai in his book The Seven Sheikhdoms describes the training of falcons as follows: The key to success in falconry is the relationship of falcon and falconer who must exercise patience, skill, and devotion. The ability of a falcon to obey his master is what makes the Arabs like the sport a lot. In the training process, the falcon sits on a round wooden thing like a mushroom which moves. This is called Al Wakr. Or on the trainer’s hand which is protected from the sharp nails of a falcon by a big cuff which covers his hand, this is called the Mangalah. This is usually made from material which is filled with straw or cloth. This is where the falcon sits. The falcon is held by a two braids of cotton, these are called Al Sabbuq, and they are attached to a leash to make the bird a free to move. Al Burgu is another piece that is used in this sport. It is put on the falcon’s head too cover his eyes. This is because they have very good eyes and they could see very sharply. They also need to be slowly adjusted to any new environment. Their eyes are covered as a part of the training process. Then they are taken off slowly through showing them slowly the environment around them. Al Mukhlat is the bag in which the trainer hides wrapped up houbara wings or pigeons. These things which are in the bag are used to attract the falcon back to get them. This way of attracting the falcon back is called the tilwah. The wakir is the sitting place of the falcon. It is a long and decorated wooden Stand. On top of it there is a flat padded place for the falcons sharp claws to rest on. When the falcon flies away from the wakir, the end of the long stand, which is down is pushed into the sand where it stays upright. Controlling the falcon is very necessary, especially after making every catch. Light and also strong chains are put on its ankles. These things are called the subuq and are 30 centimeters long. They are very strong and flexible. They are made from nylon. The two ends of these chains are tied together into a short chain. This short chain is then attached to a small ball. These things make the falcon move easier and controls his flying. The whole piece is called the mursel. The falcon shouts “yalla” and after a second, the falcon with all its power opens his wings and moves them very fast and powerful. Then moves quickly into the sky. As soon as it sees the animal which he is supposed to catch, he quickly chases it. This chase goes on for some time until the gets tired and slows down and at that moment, the falcon flies down quickly and pulls it to the ground. The main animals which the falcon is supposed to catch are : Houbara or MacQueen’s bustard, Stone Curlew (Kiriwan) and Hare (Arnab). The Houbara is a powerful bird that can weigh up to four kilograms. It could stand as much as 75 centimeters tall and it is known for its great Speed. It is fast in in flight and on land. This is what makes the chase more exciting for the falconers. His Highness Sheikh Zayed is known by all the people as an expert in the sport of falconry. He has been practicing this sport since he was a teenager. He wrote his famous book titled Hunting with Falcons which was published in 1976. It is considered to be an encyclopedia of falconry. In the late 1940s, a falcon could be purchased for around 120 Dirhams. In the 1960s it was around 2,400 Dirhams. Nowadays, their prices are in ten thousands of dirhams. Bibliographywww.falcons.com

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Earth Worms

Earth Worm Disection Parts Function Digestive System - Prostomium - a small fleshy lobe that extends over the mouth, used to help dig through the soil - Mouth - the entrance for food into the digestive system, located under the prostomium - Pharynx - A tube at the beginning of the digestive tract that creates a sucking action to remove food particles from the soil, located just behind the mouth - Esophagus - a narrow passage in the digestive track that connects the pharynex to the crop - Crop - a temporary storage area in the digestive track , food waits here before it passes to the remainder of the digestive track - Gizzard - an area in the digestive track where strong muscles grind the food in preparation for digestion - Intestine - Nutrient digestion and absorption take place in this part if the digestive track. - Anus - Digestive wastes are expelled through this opening located on the posterior end of the worm. Nervous system - Brain - a center of nerve cells that coordinate all of the activities of the worms body - Ventral nerve cord - A cord of nerves that runs the length of the body along the bottom or belly of the worm. All nerve impulses to and from the brain are carried din this cord Circulatory System - Aortic Arches - a group of 5 muscular tubes that pump blood through the circulatory system of the worm - Ventral blood vessels - a tube structure that carries blood from the heart to the posterior of the worm located on the bottom of the worm, - Dorsal blood vessel - gathers blood from the capillaries in the body and returns it to the heart for recircutation located in the back or top of the worm Reproductive system - Seminal Vesicles (openings) - male reproductive organs - Ovary (oviduct ovaries) - egg sack, female reproductive organs - Seminal Receptacles (openings) - temporary storage areas for the male sperm until the eggs are ready to be fertilized Other Systems - Nephridium - coiled tubes in the body of a worm that collect and excrete liquid wastes from the body of the worm. - Clitellum - a swollen area of band around the mid section of the body of the worm. Materials secreted from the clitellum form a cocoon in which the eggs are hatched and the young worms develop. - Setae - Bristle structures found on the skin of the worm. Four pair of Satae are found on each segment except the first and last. Satae are used for movement. - Segments (somites) - The divisions in the skin of a segmented worm. The internal segments are called septum. There can be over 100 segments in the body of a worm. Bibliographyhttp://www.earthworms.com


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Dolphins

Dolphins are playful and cleverness make them fascinating to watch . Dolphins are not fish they are mammals that live in the sea . They have to come to the top of the water every half minute , so they can breathe . But dolphins can stay under the water for six or seven minutes ,if he holds his breath . The dolphin breathes in his head because he has a blow hole in his head that allows him to breathe . Dolphins have a lot of teeth to help them eat. Each dolphin has almost one hundred teeth in his mouth all the same size and shape . The only work the teeths have is catching food , but not chewing it. First the dolphin catches a fish then he swallows it . A dolphin has a good eye . But sometimes he can't see very well in the water because is so full of shadows , and mud , and plantsthat grow at he bottom . The dolphin uses his ears so much it is hard to see his hears . They are located in the sides of his heads and are two tiny pin holes . The dolphin can hear very well . A dolphin sleeps a foot or two below the top of the water . He takes little naps every half minute or so he moves his tail up and down .This brings him up for a breath of air . Then he drifts down and sleeps some more . Some dolphins stay together they play and learn and grow up . One reason they stay together is the enemies in the sea . The Shark is their enemy and so is the Killer Whale .If a killer whale comes close , the dolphins make a circle . The female dolphins and their babies are in the middle of the circle . The male dolphins swim around the outside of the cicle . It is hard to attack when there is a bunch of dolphins . But sometimes the enemy attacks and the dolphins attack back . When a dolphin cries for help the other dolphin comes to help . One day some dolphins were playing around a big boat they did flips in the water and jumped high in the air . But one dolphin was jumping too high and was to close to a boat . That fell against the hard side of the boat and was hurt . Then the dolphins heard the whistle for help they swam over their hurt friend . But was sinking in the water that the two friends started to push him up for a breathe air . Then he took a big breath of air and he swam away with his friends .That shows that the Dolphins stay together and are friendly . Dolphins are among the most playful of all animals , even as adults .They play with each other , with whatever the may find , and with the fish they are about to eat . They even like to play with people , wich maybe people enjoy dolphins so much . Dolphins learn humans games quickly , and they alsomake up their own games and teach them mto people . Dolphins will almost play with anything balls, feathers , and many other things . They can play basketball ,play toss the ring , jump up high , fetch a stick in the water , ring a bell when he is jumping and other varieties . Sometimes dolphins are shy when they swim close to shore . If people are gentle to the dolphins get over their shyness


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Different Types Of Sharks

INTRODUCTION Although sharks belong to the class Chondrichtyes, there are many different types. Sharks arose about 350 million years ago and have remained virtually unchanged for the past 70 million years and still comprise a dominant group. It is thought that sharks almost certainly evolved from placoderms, a group of primitive jawed fishes. It took a long series of successful and unsuccessful mutations with fin, jaw positions etc to give us all the different designs of sharks around today. When asked to draw a shark, most people would draw a shape along the lines of the whaler shark family, tigers or a mackeral shark such as a porbeagle. However many people do not realize the sheer diversity in the shape of sharks, or that rays are really sharks. Seldom does such an animal inspire such a variety of emotions reflecting a mixture of fascination, awe and fear. Sharks have occasionally exacted a terrible price from humans who have trespassed on their territory. No better understood than the ocean that they inhabit, these creatures should be regarded in the same way as lions, tigers, and bears: as dangerous, predatory but nonetheless magnificent animals. Different Types of Sharks Living sharks are divided into eight major orders, each easily recognizable by certain external characteristics. Each order contains one or more smaller groups, or families. In all there are 30 families of sharks and they contain the 350 or more different kinds or species of sharks. The eight major orders of sharks include the Squantiformes, Pristiophormes, Squaliformes, Hexanchiformes, Carcharhiniformes, Lamniformes, Orectolobiformes, and the Heterodotiformes. The orders have distinguishing characteristics that fit in each. The Squantiformes normally have flat bodies that are ray-like with mottled dorsal surfaces. These sharks have a short terminal mouth, which is armed with small impaling teeth. They also have a caudal fin, which has a lower lobe that is longer than the upper lobe. Their pectoral fins extend forward over the ventrally directed gills. The Pristiophormes have more of an elongated snout, which is saw-like and edged with slender, needle-sharp lateral teeth. They have two dorsal fins and no anal fin. They use short transverse mouths and small cuspidate holding teeth in both jaws. Squaliformes have no anal fin as well, but their snout is not elongated, but is somewhat long. Many have powerful cutting teeth in both jaws. In some species these razor sharp teeth are in the lower jaw only and the upper teeth serve to hold the food. Hexanchiformes have six or seven gill slits. They are sharks with a single spineless dorsal fin, and an anal fin. The typical Carcharhiniforme has an elongated snout, a long mouth that reaches behind the eyes, an anal fin and two spineless dorsal fins. The eyes have movable, nictitating lower eyelids worked by unique muscles. Teeth vary from small and cuspidate or flattened to large and bladelike. Carcharhiniformes have no enlarged rear crushing teeth. Along with this they have a spiral scroll intestinal valve. A Lamniforme shark has an elongated snout. Most have long mouths that reach behind the eyes, an anal fin and two spineless dorsal fins. They also have a ring intestinal valve. The Orectolobiformes have pig-like snouts and short mouths that in most species are connected to the nostrils by grooves. There is an anal fin but no fin spines on the two dorsal fins. They have uniquely formed barbells at the inside edges of the nostrils. Heterodotiformes are the only living shark that combines fin spines on their two dorsal fins and anal fin. They only have five-gill slits. In each order there are specific types of sharks. Each shark belongs to a family with different species. The Angel shark (Squantiforme) is just one of the many. It has a single family of about thirteen species. They are all ovoviviparous livebearers and most do not exceed 1.5 meters. Saw sharks (Pristiophoriformes) are harmless bottom sharks. They are also a single family but with five species. They are also ovoviviparous livebearers. Four sharks that belong to the order Sqauliforme are the Bramble, Dogfish, and Rough sharks. They have three families with eighty-two species. They too, are ovoviviparous livebearers. They have more cylindrical bodies. Frilled sharks, Six, and Seven gill sharks (Hexanchiformes) have two families and five species. Once again they are also ovoviviparous livebearers. Usually, these guys are found in deep waters. The Catsharks, Finback Catshark, False Catshark, Barbelled Houndshark, Weasel, Houndshark, Hammerhead, and Requiem sharks (Carcharhiniformes) have one hundred and ninety-seven known species. Most of these sharks are known to be dangerous. They are both oviparous and ovoviviparous livebearers. This is not the type of shark you would like to have grace you presence. From the order of Landformes is the Sand, Basking, Goblin, Crocodile, Megamouth, Thresher, and Mackerel sharks. They come complete with seven families and fifteen or sixteen species. All of them are ovoviviparous livebearers. These sharks are found in all seas except Arctic and Antarctic. The last group of sharks would be the Collared Carpet sharks, Blind, Wobbegongs, Zebra, Longtailed Carpet Sharks, Whale, and Nurse sharks. They all belong to the order Orectolobiformes and have seven families and thirty-three species. These sharks prefer the warmer water and are both ovoviviparous and oviparous livebearers. Obviously these sharks come in many different sizes and some are more dangerous than others. At least eighteen species in four families and nine genera have been implicated in attacks on humans. Obviously a small shark such as the Pygmy is harmless, but they still must be treated as a predator especially the bigger ones. The smallest of all sharks is the Pygmy Ribbontail Catshark, which is about 0.24 meters. Next in line from smallest to largest would be the Port Jackson Shark, which is about 1.65 meters. After them would be the Ornate Wobbegong (2.88m) and then the Bull shark (3.4m). The average sizes go drastically up from there to the Great White shark, which is incredibly larger, its about 6.4 meters. The two greatest sizes are the Basking shark (7.8m) and the Whale shark (13.7m). These sharks listed here are definitely not all the sharks in the world, they were just meant to give an average range of size for all sharks. Some of the most dangerous sharks range from about 2 to 8 meters. The Hammerhead, Great White, Tiger, Blue, and the Bull shark name a few. There are many types of sharks lurking around in today’s ocean. In every one is unique in its own way. Some are different by size, shape, eating habits, or even the way they breed. Although with all these differences they are all very similar and that is why the shark is one of the most amazing creatures of our time. Summary Although sharks belong to the class Chondrichtyes, there are many different types. Sharks are divided into 8 major orders. Each order contains 1 or more smaller group. There are 350 or more different kinds of species of sharks. The 8 orders are named the Squantiformes, Pristiophormes, Squaliformes, Hexanchiformes, Carcharhiniformes, Lamniformes, Orectolobiformes, and the Heterodotiformes. These orders group sharks according to certain distinguishing characteristics. The Angel shark, Saw shark, Frilled shark, Hammerhead shark, Sand shark, Wobbegongs, and more all belong to a specific order due to their characteristics. Each one of these sharks come in different shapes and sizes. Some are more dangerous than others. The more dangerous sharks range from about 2 to 8 meters. It is obvious that sharks are one of the most amazing creatures of our time. BibliographyClark J. 1975. Shark frenzy. Grosset & Dunlap Publishers, New York NY. 106 pp. Clark, E. 1981. Sharks, magnificent and misunderstood. National Geographic 160:138-186 (Aug. 1991) Compagno, L. J. V. 1984. FAO species catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 2. Carcharhiniformes FAO Fish. Synop. (125) Vol. 4, Pt. 2: 251-655. Conniff R. 1993. From jaws to laws - now the big bad shark needs protection from us. Smithsonian 24: 32-43 (Number 2, May1993). Burgess, R. F. 1970. The sharks. Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden City NY. 159 pp


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Costa Rica

Greg Coffta Bio190/Costa Rican Adventures 11/30/1999 Part I Banana: Bananas were most likely picked up by the European traders in Southeast Asia when in search for spices. Soon, as the discovery of the Tropics arrived, traders took bananas to Central America. Breadfruit: this fruit commonly grows among the southern Pacific islands, and it probably found its way to Costa Rica when the natives started to explore on boat. Chocolate: as far as I could find, chocolate is native to Central America. It comes from the fruit of the Cacao Tree, and was traditionally used by the Aztecs. Coconuts: Coconuts also come from Tropical Pacific islands, and the actual coconut itself probably floated across the ocean, only to land on the shores of Costa Rica. Coffee: Coffee is speculated to have grown initially somewhere around Arabia. Its first recorded use was in 675 B.C., by the Red Sea. Most likely picked up along spice trading expeditions, the Europeans once again brought coffee to the Americas. Finding it grows well in that particular climate, the commercial cultivation began. Mango: Another fruit Native to the eastern part of the world, traders such as Columbus and Vespucci also brought this to the Americas. Papaya: During the slave trade, Slave traders often picked up some of the fruit from southern Africa. Possibly on accident, this fruit was spread to Central America and is now commercially grown. Quinine: Being a Tropical country, Costa Rica had its problems with malaria. One of the drugs used to treat malaria was Quinine, derived from the South American Cinchona trees. Traded by natives throughout the region, Quinine was used as a natural remedy before Europeans discovered it. Sugar Cane: Sugar cane is native to the Middle East, Kazakhstan and India, used by Europeans as a sweetening agent, it soon was commercially grown and exported from many of the newly discovered Tropical nations, most likely by slave labor. Tomatoes: Indigenous to South America, the Tomatoes was once though by the Patagonians to be poisonous. After discovering they were not, it became a widely traded commodity throughout the world. Growing best is warm, humid regions of the earth with sandier soil, there is no doubt as to why tomatoes are cultivated in Costa Rica. Material Sited From Includes: Encarta Interactive Encyclopedia 1998, and various Internet search engine results. PART II Arboreal: Of or living in the trees. Biome: A major regional biotic community, such as a grassland or desert. Biodiversity: each biome being different Canopy: the uppermost layer in a forest Carbon Cycle: only a certain amount of carbon is circulated throughout the environment, appears in many different forms. Climax Community: An established ecosystem in which the area allows for the maximum animal occupation. Community: A group of plants and animals living together in an area. Consumer: a buyer of goods and services, or crops produced especially for consumption Decomposer: any organism that breaks down organic matter into its basic elements. Decomposition: the process of breaking organic matter down into its basic elements. Ecology: the science of the relationship between organisms and their environments Ecosystem: an ecological community together with its environment functions as a unit. Epiphyte: a plant such as Spanish moss or a Tropical orchid living on an independent plant. Erosion: washing away the topsoil of the region either by wind or water. Ethnobotany: studying the relationship between a race of people and the plants they use. Forest: a growth of trees, plants and underbrush that cover a large area, living symbiotically with other organisms. Habitat: the area or environment in which an organism lives. Hydrologic Cycle: only a certain amount of water is circulated throughout the environment, takes many different phases, very little water has been created or destroyed. Leaching: water running off of the topsoil, carrying many different chemicals and sediment Liana: vines Litter: discarding waste products carelessly Monoculture: the cultivation of a single crop in an area Niche: an animal’s best-suited environment Photosynthesis: the process carried out by a plant that turns sunlight and water into energy Pollination Vector: pollen from plants being distributed throughout the environment by other living organisms Producer: one who creates or produces something, consumer goods Rain Forest: a dense evergreen forest usually in tropics with an annual rainfall of at least 2.5-m. Sedimentation: settling of the sediments in a liquid, like soil in water. Species: narrowest group, to which an organism can be classified, produces similar and fertile offspring. Stratification: soil depositing in distinct layers. Subsoil: layer of earth beneath the topsoil. Primary Succession: a group of people following things in order. Secondary Succession: subordinate things that follow Primary Succession. Sustainability: the ability of an ecosystem to sustain itself, or preserve its existence. Topsoil: the foremost and upper part of the soil. Tropical Rain Forest: a forest lying in a Tropical region of the earth that is very dense, with high rainfall and humidity Vine: a weak stemmed plant that derives its support from a solid surface. Part III The isthmus of Central America, formed by the tectonic movements of the plates of the earth, is the stretch of land between the Americas. When Pangea, the ultimate single continent started to fissure, the Americas were thought to be one unit. But by slowly moving apart, the two lands became increasingly more isolated, only connected by the thread of land called Central America. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been increasing by 0.4 percent a year because of the use of fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and coal. The slash-and-burn clearing of tropical forests has also been a contributing factor. Other gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect, such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons, are increasing even faster. The net effect of these increases could be a worldwide rise in average global temperature of 1.0 to 3.5 Celsius degrees (1.8 to 6.3 Fahrenheit degrees), with a best estimate of 2.0 Celsius degrees (3.6 Fahrenheit degrees), by 2100. Warming of this magnitude would alter climates throughout the world, affect crop production, and cause sea levels to rise significantly. If this happened, millions of people would be adversely affected by major flooding. The Standing forest plays an essential role in filtering the rain fall, letting the water trickle down the leaves and branches of the trees and other plants found in the forest. The absence of the fauna in any forest is destructive in many ways. Erosion occurs when little or no plants exist to provide root support. Soon, the topsoil is washed away into nearby bodies of water, which is a pollutant to the aquatic life, putting many nitrogen and carbon compounds into the water. Some examples of medically important rain forest plants are Quinine, Hemp, Laudanum, Aspirin, and Coconut Root. Quinine comes from cinchona trees and plants, and is used to treat malaria. Many native tribes used cannabis as mild anesthetic or pain reliever. Laudanum, an opium derivative, was used to treat severe pain, and used possible for its narcotic characteristics. Another pain reliever manufactured from the bark of willow trees is Aspirin. Natives used this to treat fever and mild pain. The form they used contained salicylic acid, which irritated the gastrointestinal tract to the extent of ulcers. This form also tasted even bitterer than the modern form. Coconut root is another form of a narcotic, Natives often make chew the root or make a tea from the root to relieve pain, and give a feeling of euphoria. Material was solely taken from Encarta Interactive Encyclopedia 1998


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