Louis Isadore Kahn And The Salk Institute

Louis Kahn and The Salk Institute Standing alone against the endless blue sea, the Salk Institute by Louis I. Kahn is one of a kind. Louis Kahn's Salk Institute for Biological Studies on the Pacific coast near La Jolla aspires within its own spirit to an order achieved through clarity, definition, and consistency of application(Heyer 195). To many, this magnificent structure may seem out of place, but it works well with the surrounding environment because of the spatial continuity that it possesses. The relation to the site, the tectonic characteristics, and the ideas of servant versus served, combine to achieve a great sense of order in the Salk Institute. Many of the ideas that went into the construction of this design are still utilized in architecture today. Kahn's modern design takes full advantage of the atmosphere by opening up a broad plaza between two research and lab wings providing a view of the beautiful Pacific Ocean and the coastline (Ghirardo 227). The laboratories are separated from the study areas, and each study has a view of the magnificent blue Pacific with horizontal light pouring in. This allows scientists to take a break from their frantic studies and clear their minds with a breath-taking view. In relation to this idea Kahn stated, I separated the studies from the laboratory and placed them over the gardens. Now one need not spend all the time in the laboratories (Ronner 158). The two lab wings are symmetrical about a small stream that runs through the middle of the courtyard and feeds into the ocean. This steady ban of water flowing towards the sea symbolizes the success that human can accomplish. I thought this idea had a worthy presence, considering the Salk Institute is one that promotes research and study. Thus, the courtyard is considered the façade to the sky. Kahn didn't need to dress up the land around the plan because the Salk Institute is the landscape. It is one with the site. Kahn incorporates the use of tectonic characteristics within this design in a number of ways. The materials used included wood, concrete, marble, water, and glass, and they all contributed to the Brutalist notions and simplistic plan. He believed that concrete was the stone of modern man, and therefore it was to be left with exposed joints and formwork markings (Ronner 164). Weathered wood and glass combined with the concrete to construct the outside surface. Kahn also integrated mechanical and electrical services into this architecture, which gave laboratories a new concept. These technologies were hidden in the design to continue Kahn's search for order in the plan. Ceiling and column ideas were also combined to separate the air that you breathe from the air that you throw away. Interlocking volumes are present throughout the structure, all the way down to the details on the furniture (Ghirardo 227). The servant and served spaces in the Salk Institute create a consistent order, which is evident throughout the design. The laboratories act as the served spaces, while the servant spaces are represented by the studies. All of the ideas are initiated in the studies or offices, and the research is carried out in the labs. Therefore, the servant spaces serve the served spaces. These are not the only ways that the served and servant concepts are involved in the institute. An idea that is still used to this day in all forms of architecture is the way the Kahn guides the utilities through the building in an unnoticeable manner. Served spaces and servant spaces are entirely integrated (Scully 36). Kahn also made a service floor under each laboratory which established a very flexible space, and this concept is still used today (Frampton 245). Overlooking the great Pacific, this is no ordinary office building. Louis Kahn used a combination of modern architecture with much simplicity to produce arguably his greatest feat as an architect. A lot of concepts that he initiated in this plan are still in use all over the world today. The relation to the site, the tectonic characteristics, and the ideas of servant versus served, all work together to achieve a great sense of order in the Salk Institute. BibliographyFrampton, Kenneth. Modern Architecture: A Critical History. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992. Ghirardo, Diane. Architecture After Modernism. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996. Heyer, Paul. American Architecture: Ideas and Ideologies in the Late Twentieth Century. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993. Pg. 195. Ronner, Heinz. Louis I. Kahn: Complete Works 1935-1974. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1997. Pg.158-165. Scully, Vincent Jr. Louis I. Kahn. Pg. 36-37.

Words: 696

Ideas Of The Parthenon

Ideas of the Parthenon The Greek people of the 5th century BC created a culture that was deeply rooted in philosophy and the arts. Their endless search for their place in the grand scheme of the universe and in nature around them influenced everything in their lives especially their love of the arts. Their drama, sculpture, and even architecture are all shining examples of the ideas that were so dominant in the minds of the Greek people. What could be considered the crown jewel of Greek architecture, the Parthenon, is one such of these examples. It brings into form the three principal ideas of humanism, rationalism, and idealism of the 5th century Greek people through not only its structure, but its ornamentation and sculpture as well. The basis of humanism can be summed up in the words of Protagoras, “Man is the measure of all things.” Humanism is the idea that human beings are the yardstick by with to measure all things in the universe, including Greek gods and goddesses. The Parthenon stands for this very idea through the fact that it is a human organization of space. It brings an understandable order into a chaotic space that would otherwise be incomprehensible to a human being. It allows a human to see the space and recognize it as something that is real. It also consists of repeated patterns and distance intervals throughout its structure that add to this order. The metopes, for example, are set in an alternating pattern with the triglyphs around the entire building at distinct intervals bringing a clear order to the entablature of the Parthenon. The columns that support the Parthenon are also placed in certain distance intervals from each other and coincide with the pattern formed by the metopes and triglyphs. These columns, however, are not in a perfect pattern of equal distances around the entire Parthenon. The columns on either side of the doorway to the Parthenon are placed a little farther apart than the rest to show a clear entrance to the building. Also the corner columns of the building are positioned slightly closer to their neighboring columns in order to compensate for the human eye. Without this compensation the columns would give the illusion of leaning outward and being farther apart than the rest of the columns because of the distortion of such a large structure to the human eye. The stylobate that the columns rest on is also built to allow for this optical illusion of the human eye. It has a gentle arch to it that prevent the human eye from believing the building to be concave or sagging toward the middle. This effect, known as entasis, can be seen throughout the Parthenon from the curve of the stylobate and entablature to the slight bulging of the columns that gives the impression of bearing the load of the structure. Another example of humanism in the Parthenon can be seen in it ornamentation and sculpture. The Parthenon is a temple to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, and has many references to her though its decorative art work. For example, the East pediment of the Parthenon depicts the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus. All of the figures in the pediment are in a human form, including the gods and goddesses and Athena herself. This is a way of bringing the gods down to a level that can be recognized and understood by humans who worship them. This is true of all the Greek statues of gods and goddesses such as the gold and ivory statue of the goddess Athena that stood in the Parthenon itself. Another idea of the 5th century Greek people that can be recognized in the Parthenon is that of rationalism. Rationalism is the idea of eternal principles or basic truths that are inherent in the universe and in the human mind. An example is that of Pythagoras’ right triangle theory that a²+b²=c², which cannot be total proven but yet has never been disproved either. This same theory can be seen in the Parthenon through its rectangular shape which, if cut in half diagonally, would be two right triangles. As it is plain to see, rationalism had a great hand in the very shape of the Parthenon as well as many other aspects. One of these other aspects has to do with the size of one part of the Parthenon in proportion to the size of another part. The proportion or ratio of 9:4 has been recognized and reoccurs throughout the building in many different instances. For example, when the length of the Parthenon at the stylobate of 228 feet is compared to the width at the stylobate of 104 feet the resulting ratio is 9:4. This ratio can also be seen when you compare the distance from the center of one column to the center of the neighboring column to the diameter of the column at its base and in the distance of that diameter to the width of the triglyph on the entablature. Moving on from the Parthenon’s structure to the statues, pediments and friezes that decorate this temple to Athena, one can notice even more effects of the idea of rationalism. In the 5th century BC, a sculptor by the name of Polyclitus very successfully attempted to apply a canon, or body of rules, to the proportions of the human body through sculpture. Although Polyclitus didn’t set his body of rules in stone, so to speak, he started an idea of rationalism that applied to the ratios of the human body. The statue of the goddess Athena that resides in the Parthenon is one such sculpture that was created with a similar body of rules in mind. The same can be said for the elaborate pediment on the East end of the Parthenon, as well as the much smaller friezes and metopes that decorate the great building inside and out. The humanistic concepts of the Parthenon are plain to see, a building built by humans, for humans, and built with human ideas, but what about the other side of the coin. This other side of humanistic thinking is known as idealism. Idealism is the perfect and unblemished aspirations of human beings manifested in their minds and their art, such as the Parthenon. The Greeks belief in their gods and goddesses is the perfect example of this idea of idealism. To the Greeks, their gods and goddesses represented the perfection that they all were trying to achieve physically and mentally, which is a direct contrast of the humanistic idea of man being the measure of all things. Thus, when one looks at the statue of Athena or the East pediment depicting her birth they can interpret them as an example of humanism, gods being more human, or as idealistic, humans being more god-like. The same can be said for the use of entasis and the other deviations from “perfect” geometry in the Parthenon. By adjusting the building from exact right angles and precise flat surfaces, the architect made the Parthenon appear, to the human eye, as an idealized dwelling for a perfect being, the goddess Athena. There are other examples of idealism in the Parthenon that are not related to humanism at all. The sheer size of the building hints to the fact that the Parthenon is a place that is not meant for a human or even built with a human being in mind. For example, the steps of the Parthenon are to such a large scale that is clumsy and awkward for a man’s normal stride, but in the Greek mind, the perfect distance and size for that of a goddess. The entrance to the Parthenon, through it’s colossal size, denotes that a human is not the main concern when it comes to entering and exiting of this building in the mind of the architect. The 5th century Greek people played a pivotal role in the shaping of not only the world of philosophy but also the world of art and architecture. Their ideas of humanism, rationalism, and idealism were the things that brought to life the artwork of their time and still effects ours to this day. The Parthenon, with its bulging columns, its repeated ratios, and its colossal size expresses how these ideas formed the structure of the building and then shows how the same ideas brought to form the beautiful pediments and sculptures that give us a deeper insight into the minds and hearts of the Greek people. The Parthenon is truly an elaborate time capsule overflowing with Greek ideas.

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Gothic Cathedrals

tracery - In architecture, branching, ornamental stonework, generally in a window, where it supports the glass. Tracery is particularly characteristic of Gothic architecture. Example: The tracery in a rose window of Washington Cathedral, Washington, DC. This graphic displays four different photos-- they amount to a zoom into the tracery. Also see fenestration, foil, quatrefoil, and stained glass. rose window - Large circular windows of tracery and stained glass found in Gothic cathedrals. Also called a wheel window. Examples: transept - An aisle between the apse and nave. It cuts across the nave and side aisles to form a cross-shaped floor plan. Also see architecture, cathedral, and Gothic. nave - The major, central part of a church where the congregation gathers. It leads from the main entrance to the altar and choir, and is usually flanked by side aisles. An example: A photo of the nave of the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, France, as seen upon entering it from the narthex, and looking toward the altar. The ceiling's vaults are visible above. Light is entering the nave through stained glass windows. Also see column and pier. aisle - A long, narrow space on either side of the nave of a church, usually between a row of columns or piers and the outer wall. It is often referred to as a side aisle. choir - The part of a church where services are sung. It is usually east of the transept, and within the chancel, but may extend into the nave. chancel - The part of a church reserved for clergy and containing the altar and the choir. ltarpiece or altar-piece - A piece of artwork which is placed above and either on or behind an altar in a Christian church or other religious platform. Usually it is a votive painting, a set of painted and/or carved panels (often a triptych), or a decorative screen.

Words: 315

Gothic Architecture Vs. Egyptian Architecture

Gothic Architecture Vs. Egyptian Architecture The sediment richens the soil year after year by the Nile that floods the valley and rises twenty to thirty feet high. African villagers expect the seasonal rains; the precipitation determines the crops productivity. The valley cut by this dominating river is also where one of the greatest Neolithic civilizations grew. The originals were of mixed races but all derived from the white races. By 4000 B.C. these egger people started using copper and gold, developing a standard way of living. They made tools to their own needs and began building and started to include architectural art full of decorous curves and lines. The early Egyptians made their homes out of river reeds and river mud. They produced round homes or rectangular homes with arched rooftops. Primarily the huts were used to keep from the harsh, warm temperatures. During this time period of reed homes adobe bricks were being made which led to a crucial innovation to Egyptian homes and architecture. The art and skill that was carved, painted and designed into religious temples and tombs gave later researchers of great talent information on Egyptian life. With architectural strides religious gods and carvings were beginning a decorative architectural era. Imhotep was an architect that designed the great pyramid and temple of King Zoser in the third dynasty. He was precise and eloquent with the use of stone that was not surpassed for centuries. The Egyptians honored many of their architects, who also became court officials, but Imhotep was credited for being the first great user of stone towards monumental buildings. The old kingdom was built of river reeds and mud but later other kingdoms learned from the old designs. Later the middle kingdom saw a new light in utilizing stone form and development of others. Though it wasn’t until the new empire where great temples and large courts. The new empire fell and the idea of a strong, continuous rise in Egyptian architecture had almost ceased. The Nile River determined the building materials of the Egyptians. As time progressed and architecture was beginning to have history, technical skills were developing as well as architectural skills. One major discovery was slanted roofs were unnecessary to the hot, humid weather. Falt roofs became the new invention and were multipurpose for more living space, which became an essential part of the home design. Egyptians also tried to figure out a way walls could be sturdy and strong but less heavy and less cracks. But the cracking would never fail so when the bricks were laid on concave beds, so when cracks did occur, the wall was easily fixed. Another form of the brick was used called the vault. Vaults were most often used in tombs and cover storage rooms but never did this principle become a way of source. Stone was later introduced, which came late in Egyptian architecture. There was more than enough stone, from the Nile cutting its way down the desert plateau. There was a surplus of stone to be used. They became expert quarrying diggers, cutting some of the best pieces of rock. Egyptians also developed different techniques of handling stones. With all this stone, labor power and organization was needed. The king steeped forward for that position and gave orders to the laborers, whom all were working on one building at a time. The workers were treated fairly good with adequate pay. This is how the pyramids were built and stone architecture was the new generation of adobe brick and river reed huts. Gothic architecture is an example of how the intricate structural and decorative elements in buildings are tied together. Like the Egyptians Gothic architecture uses the vault idea but is better understood. Early experiments failed and were left to explore other options but gothic architecture explains the answers. The question of different width varied different heights; so gothic architecture uses the pointed arch, and varying the steepness to gain the correct connections. Gothic architecture was more of a solution of building problems. It also was an expression of modern Europe. The economy way stable, trade and business was steady and cities were expanding and flourishing. The Gothic era was an introduction to new houses and newborn towns. Thus people were being more intelligent, intelligent about decisions just like the Egyptians. The physical changes influenced people with a metal guidance. The prosperity of physical changes increased the standard way of living and organization. The trade market area now was where the town hall was built. The revolutionary architecture helped the religious ideas of Egyptians and for the Gothic architecture it meant a beginning of commerce. The Gothic architects built off the typical square buildings to the enhanced octagon shape. They still included the vault but not as just an over the entrance sloop, they used it so it touches the fool of the building. Aside from flat roofs like the Egyptians cathedral ceilings were the hallmark of most Gothic architects. Thus, the great works of architects came out through wealthy, richen homes. Gothic architecture was more of a revolutionary aspect in architecture where as Egyptian Architecture was a way of life. Gothic architecture was more of a revolution aspect in architecture where as Egyptian architecture was a way of life.

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Ginzburg

Proceeding from the following quote, briefly explain Ginzburg’s historical model of stylistic change, referring back to Volliet-le-Duc and Gottfried Semper wherever appropriate. “A Flower grows in the field because it cannot help but to grow: thus it cannot contemplate whether or not it is appropriate to the field that existed before it. On the contrary, by its very appearance, the flower transforms the general image of the field” Ginzburg talks about the formal development of styles and how the modern architecture is grown from the past but isn’t necessarily based on the past. These ideas are very much shared by Semper. This growth is singular and linear, based on a preceding proposition, each out growing the latter, but not continuing the old. “…a person making use of the achievements in electricity cannot, under any circumstances, be forced to revert to steam power. Gottfried Semper explains this form of thinking very well in that, we learn from the past, we cannot copy it, as this is a waste but rather we cannot turn our backs on this existing knowledge, and previous epochs. The development and changing of styles is a meshed concept. There is no end or beginning of styles. Ginzburg explains the life of a particular style as a growing organism in that it is born, “lives out its youth”, matures and lives out it’s old age, but never dies, but rather atrophies. This is why the actual timing of a style is impossible to track, for there is no death of a style, the life of the style atrophies. Styles cannot be erased because they are not physical elements to knocked down and demolished. So when an epoch forms, there is a trace of the old style, a marking, like a child would have of his parents. Each style has a genetic imprint of its parent, history. “A flower grows in the field because it cannot help but to grow…” A flower germinates in the grown and is thus, it is born. This organism grows in its field, no choices, no alternatives, but it still grows. This flower could wither and die, for what difference would it make? But does it know that it’s individual expression of color and aroma could be the single characteristic that beautifies its surroundings. A style that in it’s own being, transforms a hideous field into a breathtaking space. This theory of style stands true to the linear growth of architecture. Style will continue to grow and thrive, without its own predetermined plan. Each bit of architecture is born, and lives through maturity. This excerpt is taken from the given quote above. It assesses the revolution Ginzburg prescribing for Russia. Ginzburg talks about how the architects in Russia, like the flower, doesn’t have the choice of banishing the historical development of architecture. But that their styles can transform this field into a flowering spectacle.

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German And Dutch Influence On American Housing

German settlers came to North America in the late 17th century, they settled mainly in Pennsylvania. Germans built large, lasting houses of wood and quarry stone. Dutch settlers came, more than a century earlier, to the New World. Their first settlements were in New Amsterdam, now known as New York City and the Hudson Valley to the north. Dutch immigrants used stone and brick to build their homes. Their homes were large according to colonial standards. Dutch homes were noted for their decorative brickwork. The Germans enticed by such good reports, more displaced Germans came, crowding the trails that led westward. The rolling hills and fertile soils of the River Valley in Pennsylvania reminded them of their homeland, so they settled by the thousands, and their descendants, misnamed the “Pennsylvania Dutch” remain there to this day. The Dutch landed and decided to call New Amsterdam their home. They learned to use the sea to their advantage and became fisherman, they supplied seafood to Europe and soon became one of the leading exporters. Germans used Gable roofs with hoods in building their dwellings. Germans used hoods, or abbreviated roofs, to protect the people walking, from rain, and helped with the removal of rain from the roof. Dutch settlers built their homes using intricate, stepped gables. Some of the main architectural features in German and Dutch influenced houses are dormer windows, stepped gables or “hoods”, metal gutters, small windows with sliding shutters, and the Dutch door. The Dutch door is a door that is divided in half horizontally, like the door outside of the pool for the concession stand. There are some distinctive features of the German and Dutch; Germans had fireplaces in the center of the first floor. The fireplace was the center of most activities. On the opposite side of the fireplace was a large family room for entertaining, they used the light and heat from the fireplaces to do many daily chores and used for the entertaining of the guests. A favorite feature of the Dutch was wide front porches on their homes. The Dutch also had dormer windows that are still widely used today. Dormer windows are windows that are projecting through a steeply sloping roof. While doing this report we found that not many houses can be influenced by only one group of people. Shingles from the English settlements and dormer windows from the Dutch can be used on the same house. Although many houses have different characteristics they still have a distinct style.

Words: 418

Frank Lloyd Wright

NOTE: Received an A with some corrections. If your professor is one who checks bibliography's be careful with mine. Art History 5 December 2000 Frank Lloyd Wright American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright is considered the pioneer in modern style and one of the greatest figures in twentieth-century architecture (Twombly, 16). According to Frank Lloyd Wright: “…having a good start, not only do I fully intend to be the greatest architect who has yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest architect who will ever live. Yes, I intend to be the greatest architect of all time.” It appears that from the beginning, Frank Lloyd Wright was destined by fate, or determination, or by his mother’s support, to be one of the most innovative and celebrated architects of the twentieth century. Throughout his life, he designed nearly 900 structures, some 400 of which were actually built. He was principally known for his highly original methods of uniting buildings with their surroundings (Hirsh, 189). Wright was also renowned for initiating new architectural and engineering techniques but was often criticized by the more conventional architects who opposed his new methods (Twombly, 17 - 18). Frank Lincoln Wright (he would later change his middle name to Lloyd) was born on June 8 1867 in Richland Center, Wisconsin, to Anna Lloyd-Jones Wright and William Russell Cary Wright. Anna Lloyd-Jones was a teacher from a large close-knit Welsh family of farmers and ministers. His mother and her family would have a tremendous influence on Frank throughout his life. Frank’s father, William, was a devout Unitarian preacher and musician. The Wright family spent many evenings listening to William read such works as Emerson, Thoreau, and Blake . In 1869 through 1878, the Wright family traveled the country, relocating to Iowa, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts, where William held pastorate positions (Taliesin Preservation). His father moved from job to job dragging the family along which often resulted in financial difficulties. In 1878, the Wright’s eventually returned to the hills of Wisconsin, close to the strong support of Anna’s family. Finally, settling back in Wisconsin, William Wright became secretary of the Wisconsin Conference of Unitarians and Independent Societies (Gill, 57). Anna relied heavily upon her family to help rear her children. Frank spent numerous hours helping his uncles in the fields, who taught him the importance of hard work. His aunts and his mother intellectually guided him in education, religion, and nature, which played an important part in forming Frank’s architectural philosophy. Using Froebel’s geometric blocks to entertain and educate her son, Anna seems to have struck on the genius and imagination her son possessed. Anna consistently encouraged Frank to achieve great things in the field of Architecture (Gill, 58). In 1885, Frank quit high school and entered the University of Wisconsin at Madison (as a special student). He studied civil engineering because the school did not offer any courses in architecture. No longer working in the fields, Frank worked for the dean of engineering in order to supplement the family income but he was not enthused with his situation and dreamed of going to Chicago (Gill, 74). After two years at the University, Frank left and moved to Chicago. In Chicago, Frank found a job as a draftsman with the major firm headed by Louis Sullivan (Art Through the Ages, 1058 - 1060). Sullivan had a profound influence on Frank and became his mentor in architecture (Twombly, 153). With the industrial age, came a growing suburban population. The firm of Alder and Sullivan concentrated on downtown commercial buildings, whereas Frank accomplished residential contracts. His work soon expanded and he accepted contracts outside the firm. When Sullivan discovered this in 1893, he felt betrayed, accused Frank of a breach of contract, and demanded that Frank discontinue working outside the firm. Rather than drop his night job, Frank walked out on the firm (Gill, 87-88). Frank Lloyd Wright quickly built up a practice in residential design that eventually expanded to include commercial architecture. Through designing a prairie-style home and implementing new techniques and materials, business thrived. He created the philosophy of “organic architecture,” the central principle of which maintains that the building should develop out of its natural surroundings so that the indoors and outdoors often seemed to merge. Wright would define the word of organic as: “Originally used in architecture, organic means part-to-whole-is-to-part. Therefore, entity as integral is what is really meant by the word organic. Intrinsic” (Twombly, 347). Frank also followed the Sullivan approach to architectural philosophy, “form follows function.” “The architect should consider the purpose of a building as a starting point, not as a rigidly limiting structure” (Encarta). With this philosophy in mind, Wright designed some of the most spectacular buildings in the world. One project that gained him notoriety was the Robie House. The Robie house was constructed in the South Side of Chicago between 1907 - 1909 and considered one of his finest architectural accomplishments. His prairie-style home design emphasized one room flowing into another, giving the sense of spaciousness and features strong horizontal lines that create a sculptured effect. In place of traditional architecture, Wright designed low-slung, over hanging roofs, which open outwards onto terraces and merged with the landscape beyond (Great Architecture of the World, 227). Even his critics admired the way in which he made maximum use of a small site, putting the heating and other services on the ground floor and the living area on the upper floors (Chronicle of America, 565). Wright demonstrated his organic philosophy when he produced the Kaufmann house, nicknamed “Fallingwater.” Fallingwater truly integrates the house and the landscape that blends in with the environment, harmonizing with the natural surroundings. Positioned on a steeply rocky hillside, the upper portion is encased in the slope to counterbalance the terrace that is situated out over a flowing waterfall below (Great Architecture of the World, 255). Glass walls on both stories envelop a harmonic view of the countryside. Fallingwater is probably one of Wright’s most admired works and the epitome of organic architecture. Among Wright’s other remarkable engineering feats was the design of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, constructed to withstand earthquakes. Wright incorporated a cantilever with the foundation floating on a bed of mud to obtain flexibility of the structure (Twombly, 215). Wright took his son John, who also demonstrated architectural ability, with him on this project. While observing the construction, his son decided it was something children could do on a smaller scale and invented Lincoln Logs (Chronicle of America, 593). The hotel, completed in 1922, combined oriental simplicity with modern world comfort. As with many of Wright’s architectural projects, he was criticized for its aesthetic design. Nevertheless, when it survived the 1923 earthquake without damage, praise was rendered. In conjunction with his engineering talent, Wright was a pioneer in implementing new techniques. The Larkin Office Building located in Buffalo, New York not only incorporated new techniques but also exemplified Sullivan’s philosophy of form follows function. Wright used concrete blocks reinforced by steel rods that added strength to the building and made it more fire resistant. After the 1871 Chicago fire, importance was attached to fireproof construction. The Larkin building was the first of its kind to employ air conditioning, panel heating, double-glass windows, all glass doors, and metal furniture. Wright avoided the conventional box-like arrangement by building open galleries around a four-story skylight thus introducing innovations in indirect lighting (Great Architecture of the World, 226). For more than 70 years, and until his death in 1959, Frank Lloyd Wright continued to design fascinating structures. Both creative and daring, his engineering genius and implementation of new techniques marveled even his worse critics. He introduced the world to prairie style housing which is still used today. His mastery in organic technique not only blended into the surrounding environment but also allowed people to see and appreciate the world around them. His creativeness and boldness made him one of the most criticized and most admired architects in the world. BibliographyDaniel, Clifton, “Innovative Wright builds the Robie House,” Chronicle of America, New York, Chronicle Publications, 565, 593. Gill, Brendan, Many Masks: A Life of Frank Lloyd Wright, G.P. Putnam’s Sons. New York, 1987, 57 - 58, 74, 87 - 88. Hirsh, E.D., Jr., The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Mass., Houghton Miffin Co., 1988, 189. Keith’s Homepage, Photograph of Fallingwater, Cover, Internet Resource, *http://www.adbn.ac.uk/~keith/travel/fallingwater.html* Kleiner, Fred S., Mamiya, Christin J., Tansey, Richard G., “The Triumph of Modernist Art: The Early Twentieth Century.” Art Through the Ages Vol. II, Texas, Harcourt College Publishers, 2000, 1058 -1060. Sir Richards, James, “New Beginnings,” “Some Twentieth Century Architectural Developments,” Great Architecture of the World, Da Capo Press, New York, 1991, 219, 226 -227, 255. Sullivan, Louis Henri, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia, Internet Site, 2000, *http://encarta.msm.com* Taliesin Preservation Commission, Inc., Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, “Frank Lloyd Wright,” Life Time Line, Internet Resource, *http//www.taiesinpreservation.org/ *. Twombly, Robert C., Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and His Architecture, New York, John Wiley & Son Inc., 1979, 16 - 18, 153, 215, 347. Art History 5 December 2000 Frank Lloyd Wright American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright is considered the pioneer in modern style and one of the greatest figures in twentieth-century architecture (Twombly, 16). According to Frank Lloyd Wright: “…having a good start, not only do I fully intend to be the greatest architect who has yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest architect who will ever live. Yes, I intend to be the greatest architect of all time.” It appears that from the beginning, Frank Lloyd Wright was destined by fate, or determination, or by his mother’s support, to be one of the most innovative and celebrated architects of the twentieth century. Throughout his life, he designed nearly 900 structures, some 400 of which were actually built. He was principally known for his highly original methods of uniting buildings with their surroundings (Hirsh, 189). Wright was also renowned for initiating new architectural and engineering techniques but was often criticized by the more conventional architects who opposed his new methods (Twombly, 17 - 18). Frank Lincoln Wright (he would later change his middle name to Lloyd) was born on June 8 1867 in Richland Center, Wisconsin, to Anna Lloyd-Jones Wright and William Russell Cary Wright. Anna Lloyd-Jones was a teacher from a large close-knit Welsh family of farmers and ministers. His mother and her family would have a tremendous influence on Frank throughout his life. Frank’s father, William, was a devout Unitarian preacher and musician. The Wright family spent many evenings listening to William read such works as Emerson, Thoreau, and Blake . In 1869 through 1878, the Wright family traveled the country, relocating to Iowa, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts, where William held pastorate positions (Taliesin Preservation). His father moved from job to job dragging the family along which often resulted in financial difficulties. In 1878, the Wright’s eventually returned to the hills of Wisconsin, close to the strong support of Anna’s family. Finally, settling back in Wisconsin, William Wright became secretary of the Wisconsin Conference of Unitarians and Independent Societies (Gill, 57). Anna relied heavily upon her family to help rear her children. Frank spent numerous hours helping his uncles in the fields, who taught him the importance of hard work. His aunts and his mother intellectually guided him in education, religion, and nature, which played an important part in forming Frank’s architectural philosophy. Using Froebel’s geometric blocks to entertain and educate her son, Anna seems to have struck on the genius and imagination her son possessed. Anna consistently encouraged Frank to achieve great things in the field of Architecture (Gill, 58). In 1885, Frank quit high school and entered the University of Wisconsin at Madison (as a special student). He studied civil engineering because the school did not offer any courses in architecture. No longer working in the fields, Frank worked for the dean of engineering in order to supplement the family income but he was not enthused with his situation and dreamed of going to Chicago (Gill, 74). After two years at the University, Frank left and moved to Chicago. In Chicago, Frank found a job as a draftsman with the major firm headed by Louis Sullivan (Art Through the Ages, 1058 - 1060). Sullivan had a profound influence on Frank and became his mentor in architecture (Twombly, 153). With the industrial age, came a growing suburban population. The firm of Alder and Sullivan concentrated on downtown commercial buildings, whereas Frank accomplished residential contracts. His work soon expanded and he accepted contracts outside the firm. When Sullivan discovered this in 1893, he felt betrayed, accused Frank of a breach of contract, and demanded that Frank discontinue working outside the firm. Rather than drop his night job, Frank walked out on the firm (Gill, 87-88). Frank Lloyd Wright quickly built up a practice in residential design that eventually expanded to include commercial architecture. Through designing a prairie-style home and implementing new techniques and materials, business thrived. He created the philosophy of “organic architecture,” the central principle of which maintains that the building should develop out of its natural surroundings so that the indoors and outdoors often seemed to merge. Wright would define the word of organic as: “Originally used in architecture, organic means part-to-whole-is-to-part. Therefore, entity as integral is what is really meant by the word organic. Intrinsic” (Twombly, 347). Frank also followed the Sullivan approach to architectural philosophy, “form follows function.” “The architect should consider the purpose of a building as a starting point, not as a rigidly limiting structure” (Encarta). With this philosophy in mind, Wright designed some of the most spectacular buildings in the world. One project that gained him notoriety was the Robie House. The Robie house was constructed in the South Side of Chicago between 1907 - 1909 and considered one of his finest architectural accomplishments. His prairie-style home design emphasized one room flowing into another, giving the sense of spaciousness and features strong horizontal lines that create a sculptured effect. In place of traditional architecture, Wright designed low-slung, over hanging roofs, which open outwards onto terraces and merged with the landscape beyond (Great Architecture of the World, 227). Even his critics admired the way in which he made maximum use of a small site, putting the heating and other services on the ground floor and the living area on the upper floors (Chronicle of America, 565). Wright demonstrated his organic philosophy when he produced the Kaufmann house, nicknamed “Fallingwater.” Fallingwater truly integrates the house and the landscape that blends in with the environment, harmonizing with the natural surroundings. Positioned on a steeply rocky hillside, the upper portion is encased in the slope to counterbalance the terrace that is situated out over a flowing waterfall below (Great Architecture of the World, 255). Glass walls on both stories envelop a harmonic view of the countryside. Fallingwater is probably one of Wright’s most admired works and the epitome of organic architecture. Among Wright’s other remarkable engineering feats was the design of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, constructed to withstand earthquakes. Wright incorporated a cantilever with the foundation floating on a bed of mud to obtain flexibility of the structure (Twombly, 215). Wright took his son John, who also demonstrated architectural ability, with him on this project. While observing the construction, his son decided it was something children could do on a smaller scale and invented Lincoln Logs (Chronicle of America, 593). The hotel, completed in 1922, combined oriental simplicity with modern world comfort. As with many of Wright’s architectural projects, he was criticized for its aesthetic design. Nevertheless, when it survived the 1923 earthquake without damage, praise was rendered. In conjunction with his engineering talent, Wright was a pioneer in implementing new techniques. The Larkin Office Building located in Buffalo, New York not only incorporated new techniques but also exemplified Sullivan’s philosophy of form follows function. Wright used concrete blocks reinforced by steel rods that added strength to the building and made it more fire resistant. After the 1871 Chicago fire, importance was attached to fireproof construction. The Larkin building was the first of its kind to employ air conditioning, panel heating, double-glass windows, all glass doors, and metal furniture. Wright avoided the conventional box-like arrangement by building open galleries around a four-story skylight thus introducing innovations in indirect lighting (Great Architecture of the World, 226). For more than 70 years, and until his death in 1959, Frank Lloyd Wright continued to design fascinating structures. Both creative and daring, his engineering genius and implementation of new techniques marveled even his worse critics. He introduced the world to prairie style housing which is still used today. His mastery in organic technique not only blended into the surrounding environment but also allowed people to see and appreciate the world around them. His creativeness and boldness made him one of the most criticized and most admired architects in the world. Bibliography1. Daniel, Clifton, “Innovative Wright builds the Robie House,” Chronicle of America, New York, Chronicle Publications, 565, 593. 2. Gill, Brendan, Many Masks: A Life of Frank Lloyd Wright, G.P. Putnam’s Sons. New York, 1987, 57 - 58, 74, 87 - 88. 3. Hirsh, E.D., Jr., The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Mass., Houghton Miffin Co., 1988, 189. 4. Keith’s Homepage, Photograph of Fallingwater, Cover, Internet Resource, *http://www.adbn.ac.uk/~keith/travel/fallingwater.html* 5. Kleiner, Fred S., Mamiya, Christin J., Tansey, Richard G., “The Triumph of Modernist Art: The Early Twentieth Century.” Art Through the Ages Vol. II, Texas, Harcourt College Publishers, 2000, 1058 -1060. 6. Sir Richards, James, “New Beginnings,” “Some Twentieth Century Architectural Developments,” Great Architecture of the World, Da Capo Press, New York, 1991, 219, 226 -227, 255. 7. Sullivan, Louis Henri, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia, Internet Site, 2000, *http://encarta.msm.com* 8. Taliesin Preservation Commission, Inc., Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, “Frank Lloyd Wright,” Life Time Line, Internet Resource, *http//www.taiesinpreservation.org/ *. 9. Twombly, Robert C., Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and His Architecture, New York, John Wiley & Son Inc., 1979, 16 - 18, 153, 215, 347. #

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Frank Lloyd Wright

Frank Lloyd Wright was born as Frank Lincoln Wright on June 8, 1867. He was born in Richland Center, which is in southern Wisconsin. His father, William Carey Wright, was a musician and a preacher. His mother, Anna Lloyd-Jones was a teacher. It is said that his mother placed pictures of great buildings in young Frank’s nursery as part of training him up from the earliest possible moment to be an architect. Wright spent some time growing up on a farm owned by his uncle, which was located near spring Green, Wisconsin. He was of Welch heritage, and was brought up in the Unitarian Religion. Wright briefly studied civil engineering at the university of Wisconsin in Madison, and then moved to Chicago to work at an architectural firm. In 1887, he was hired as a draftsman by the firm of Alder and Sullivan. At the time, the firm was designing Chicago’s Auditorium Building. Wright eventually became the head draftsman, as well as the leader of the firm’s residential designs. After obtaining these responsibilities, Wright began to design and apply his own architectural ideas. In 1889, he married his first wife, Catherine Tobin. He also began designing houses, which was against his firms policy because they were required to follow the designs sent to them, not make their own. When his boss discovered this, Frank was fired. His house designs, however, were incredible. They showed the start of Wright’s low, sheltering rooflines, the prominence of the central fireplace, and intricate geometric designs on both doors and windows. Wright started his own firm in 1893, working out of a studio that was built in onto his home in Oak Park, a suburb of Chicago. Between 1893 and 1901, 49 buildings by Wright were built. During this period he began to develop his ideas, which would come together in his “Prairie House” concept. Into 1909, he developed and refined the prairie style, and founded this concept in architecture, and his art of this early productive period in his life is also considered as part of the arts and crafts movement, because many of his designs not only had plans for the structure of the house, but ideas of decorating the interior as well. This very productive phase in Wrights career ended in 1909, when he left his wife and five children to go to Germany. He was joined there by Mamah Borthwick Cheney, the wife of a former client and now his girlfriend. From 1912 to 1914, Wright and Cheney lived together at Taliesin, a home he designed near his uncle’s farm in Spring Green, Wisconsin. This ended when a crazed servant murdered Chaney and six others, also setting a fire that destroyed most of Taliesin. During the years 1914 to 1932, Wright rebuilt Taliesin, divorced his first wife, married and separated form another woman (partially due to the fact that he spent some time in jail), and met his third wife, Olgivanna Milanoff. His architectural designs during this period included the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan, and many California homes. Few commissions were completed toward the end of this period, but Wright did lectures to various architects, and published articles, including An Autobiography in 1932. Wrights output became more organized and individualized, with the help of numerous apprentices who assisted in design detail and site supervision. His most famous work, Fallingwater, was designed in 1936. He also began working on a project called Taliesin West in Arizona. The Taliesin Associated Architects, The Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture, and the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation are living legacies of what Mr. Wright founded in 1932. Few buildings were produced during the war years, but the G.I. Bill brought many new apprentices when the war ended. This post-war period to the end of his life was the most productive. He received 270 house commissions, and designed and built the price tower skyscraper, the Guggenheim Museum, and the Marin County Civic Center. Wright never retired; he passed away on April 9, 1959, at the age of 92 in Arizona. He was buried in the Graveyard at Unity Chapel at Taliesin in Wisconsin. In 1985, Olgivanna Wright passed away, and one of her wishes was to have Frank Lloyd Wright’s remains cremated and the ashes placed next to hers at Taliesin West. Despite much controversy, this was done. The epitaph at his Wisconsin gravesite reads, “Love of an idea is the love of God.”

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Feminism

Of what historic and contemporary concern is it that the architecture profession has been, and continues to be, strongly male dominated in Australia (currently 90% of registered architects in NSW are men). Ideally, what proportion of the profession should women occupy and why? From the start of human history, we always experience certain level of inequality between sexes. It can be seen everywhere around the world and is a concern to everyone, both men and women. This inequality is an important issue within the workforce of many professions, such as being an architect, landscape architect, city planners and designers within the built environment. Industrial revolution is the onset for women to become segregated from home, creating greater spatial division to impact on gender roles. There is common concept between the relationship of public and private space with male and female as described by Kate Lyons, PUBLIC þ Male þ Economic and Political þ WORK PRIVATE þ Female þ Reproduction and Domestic life þ HOME This model represents the suburbanisation occurring in the late 19th century and the early 20th century. Many suburban women are forced within their daily activities due to the constraints on accessibility and mobility in low-density suburbs and lead to a feeling of being isolated from the inner city. These constraints of this gender role affect the women's ability in the broader professions within the built environment, as they were restricted at home. … Architects do not like to employ women in their offices; contractors do not like to build from their plans; people with money to spend do not like to entrust its expenditure to a woman. This is probably due to the fact that women are kept at home without 'knowing much' of the 'outside world'; the design professions have intrigued women into marginal roles. Architects and other similar professional fields have perceived women not as profession but as passive clients. From these, women are users of the designed built environment as there are only few to have the opportunity to design them. This forces women to adapt to the way environments have been designed (by men). There is a concern where many women architects, landscape architects, planners, builders and designers such as Catharine Beecher, Louise Bethune. Eileen Gray, Julia Morgan, and others are not formally identified with professions. Many of their works have been credited to their male colleagues. Another concern is that there is a lack of sensitivity towards women's needs within the built environment. Design strategies and schemes often fail to consider women as a disadvantage group with exclusive needs, many of these needs are inadequately met or even un-met. This was evident in several Local Environmental Plans and Development Control Plans of the Sydney Metropolitan area that had not identified women as a disadvantage group to be included amongst the handicapped and elderly in design issue. Having considered women's issues within the built environment, in concluding one must ask are the fundamentals of professions of the built environment gender biased? Whilst the outcomes of these are gender biased, the fundamentals of planning require subsequent analysis in order to resolve the question. … not only do men and women view a common world from different perspectives, they view different worlds as well. The issues raised are not subject to strictly to women, but men also experience them though with less intensity. In addressing these issues a gender sensitive environment will be beneficial to all. Bibliography1. Allen, J., Evidence and Silence: Feminism and the Limits of History in Feminist Challenges, 1986. 2. Freestone, R., Florence Taylor: The Lady Town Planner of Loftus Street in New Planner, Dec 1991. 3. Hanna, B., Florence Taylor's Hats in Architecture Bulletin, Oct 1986. 4. Hanna, B., Three Ferminist Analyses of the Built Environment in Architectural Theory Review, vol. 1, no.1, April 1996.

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Evolution

The origins of mankind is an extremely controversial issue within today’s society. Scientists have a host of different theories pertaining to man’s inhabitance of earth. Many disagreements arise between scientists who have different beliefs pertaining to where and how mankind arose. One such argument is the conflict involving the theory of evolution versus the theory of creation. After extensive scientific research, it is apparent that the theory of evolution is correct. Evolution is the theory that life arose by natural processes at an early stage of the earth’s history and that complex organisms developed from simpler organisms by a process of slow change (Coren 209). It’s the idea that new species arise from older species after thousands of years of gradual chemical, environmental, and genetic change (Coren 142). Evolution can also be described as the complex processes by which living organisms originated on earth and have been diversified and modified through sustained changes in form and function (“Evolution”). Scientists, looking for an explanation to the origin of man and other organisms created this evolutionism theory, which also presented answers to the many asked questions dealing with similarities between species. Unlike the theory of creation, which states that the complexity of life and different species can only be explained in terms of a supernatural creator or god who placed life on earth, the theory of evolution has a plethora of evidence proving it to be true (“Creation”). There are several different types of observations that support the theory of organic evolution as an explanation for the similarities and the differences among species. One such observation is in the geologic record. The geologic record is the rock scheme found within the earth’s outer crust. By means of radioactive dating, the ages of rocks in many places on earth have been determined. It’s a timetable of the earth’s geologic history. This combined with the fossil record, another observation supporting the evolutionary hypothesis, has produced an apparent sequence of life forms from most simple to most complex during the history of the planet. Fossils are any remains or traces of a once-living organism, which are formed by preservation, petrifaction, or sedimentation. Organisms can be preserved and protected against decay by being trapped in amber, tar, or frozen in ice. The hard parts of an organism, such as shells or bones, can be preserved when the flesh of an organism has decayed away. In other cases, materials of a dead organism may be gradually washed away and replaced by minerals from the water causing the organism to petrify, or harden. Imprints, molds, or casts left by an organism after it is enclosed in sedimentary rock and decomposed are also fossils, as well as footprints and tracks. The fossil record is the timetable of fossils found in within the earth’s geologic record. Since the upper layers of sedimentary rocks are assumed to have been laid down over lower layers, the upper layers are younger than those deeper into the earth. Therefore, fossils found within the upper layers are also younger than those found within the lower layers. This combination of geologic and fossil records shows the progression of species as time also progressed (Coren 142). In reiterating the definition of evolution, we are reminded that gradual changes in one life form’s anatomy, cytology, embryology, or biochemistry could cause for a new species to originate. Similarities in these categories link species together and are therefore studied to support evolutionism. In comparing anatomy, the structures of different organisms often show unexpected similarities. Cell organelles, such as cell membranes, ribosomes, and other structures found within cells, are also similar in organisms of all kinds, showing that comparative cytology can also shows signs of evolution. When comparing the embryos of different organisms, comparative embryology, similarities can be seen in early stages of embryos that are completely different at maturity. Finally, comparative biochemistry, which is the comparing of biochemical compounds, such as amino acids, can also show similarities in species, reinforcing the idea of evolution (Coren 143). As curiosity rose throughout much of the world, scientists began to question the existence of organisms and why some are so alike in so many ways and so diverse as well. Several theories have been proposed in the past to account for the diversity and similarity of species. One scientist by the name of Lamarck proposed that changes in species occurred basically as the result of a striving of organisms for improvement. One main point of this theory was use and disuse. New organs appear in a species as a result of a need for them, and they increase in size or effectiveness through repeated use. Organs not needed decrease in size or strength as a result of disuse. A second idea included in his theory was the transmission of acquired characteristics. This means that a trait acquired during the lifetime of an organism, including improvements of existing traits, can be transmitted to its offspring (Coren 145). Later in scientific history, it was Charles Darwin who came up with the most convincing theories of adaptation and development. In 1859 he published The Origin of Species, introducing the theory that species evolve from others, including man’s development from apes (Lampton 48). Darwin proposed that evolution occurred as the result of natural selection. Natural selection is the process by which environmental effects lead to varying degrees of reproductive success among individuals of a population of organisms with different characteristics and traits. It’s the idea that organisms with favorable variations are better able to survive and reproduce than organisms not well adapted (“Natural Selection”). Overproduction is a main idea of Darwin’s theory. He believes that more offspring are produced than can survive, because of limitations in living space and food supply. He also believes in competition, where individuals of each generation compete for available food and opportunities to mate and reproduce. A third idea of Darwin’s evolution theory is variation, meaning some individuals are better fitted to survive than others, because of variations in characteristics. Survival of the fittest was how he explained the fact that individuals better fitted to survive are more likely to live longer and reproduce. Darwin’s idea of transmission of favorable characteristics modified the earlier idea presented by Lamarck. Charles believed offspring of the fittest individuals would inherit only the favorable variations that enabled their parents to survive and reproduce (Coren 145). Explaining this idea, Charles Darwin stated, “Beneficial variations of all kinds will thus, either occasionally or habitually, have been preserved, and injurious ones eliminated” (Thomas 130). In the end, Darwin expressed his idea on the evolution of species saying that the accumulation of favorable variations will gradually lead to the appearance of new species better adapted to their environment. Another scientist, DeVries, later added to Darwin’s theory that mutations were the source of new traits that permitted evolution to occur. These scientists put together today’s basis of thinking and questioning evolutionary processes (Coren 145). Once these new scientific explanations were introduced into the society, people began questioning not only animal origins, but also the beginnings of mankind itself. Through years of research, experimentation, and applying the theories of evolution, it has been suggested that man derived from the ape, and there is an endless amount of evidence to prove it. The first step in proving that man derived from ape is to compare the two organisms from head to toe, and from anatomy to embryo development. Similarities between the two organisms would provide some facts helpful in proving the humans and apes to be related. In comparing anatomy, a multitude of similarities is present. Both human and ape have diversified teeth, meaning a variety of tooth types such as molars, incisors, and canines. This also confirms that humans and apes are omnivorous, eating both meat and vegetables. Both lack an external tail and both are capable of reaching an upright posture as well as bipedal locomotion, walking on two legs. Humans and apes both have an appendix, which is an appendage that it believed to be used for the digestion of rocks, sticks, and tree bark. Humans do not have a need to digest rocks; therefore their appendix is fairly small and useless. The theory of evolution would lead us to believe that human ancestors did have to digest stones and needed a strong appendix, but as a result of disuse, the appendix in modern humans has shrunken and weakened and is not needed. Other similarities in anatomy between man and ape include, stereoptic vision, which is the ability to see in three dimensions, and similarities in cranial structure. In comparative embryology, a similarity in the length of the gestation period is observed. Fetal development in both humans and apes is between 250 and 280 days. In biochemistry, the two species reach sexual maturity between the ages of 8 and 15 years due to the secreting of hormones. They also have similar blood types. The most intriguing similarities are those that have to do with behavior and psychology. Both man and ape have similar personality ranges. They interact in small social units, families of two to six members, and they have the ability to invent their own culture, for example, tool making (Moore 185). Even with all of the information about similarities between man and ape, there is still more evidence proving the theory of evolution. Determined and curious scientists, archeologists, and anthropologists began to study the geologic and fossil records in order to obtain actual remains of human ancestors. The fossil evidence for immediate ancestors of modern humans is divided into the genera Australopithecus and Homo, and begins almost 5 million years ago. Australopithecus originated in Africa, which was believed to be the place of origin of man’s ancestors, and were most primitive. The Genus Homo pertained to the more modern and complex ancestors who began to spread through and eventually out of Africa (“Human Evolution”). Scientists’ discoveries are hard evidence supporting the evolution theory as well as helping to date the beginnings and stages of mankind. One such discovery was the finding of Australopithecus Ramidus. Ramidus, meaning root, is thought to be the missing link between man and ape. It was given that name because it is the beginning of man, man’s roots. Dated to be 4.4 million years old, it is the oldest hominid, human ancestor, ever unearthed. Tim White, from the University of California, discovered Australopithecus Ramidus in 1992, near Aramis, Ethiopia. This hominid was more apelike than manlike, but not completely ape (Thomas 136). An amazing discovery that had a large impact on the scientific world of evolution was the discovery of Lucy. Lucy was Australopithecus Afzrensis that dated back 3.5 million years. Found by paleoanthropologist, Donald Johanson, in Hadar, Ethiopia, on November 30, 1974. The reason why it was such a huge find was because the 3 ½ foot tall female hominid skeleton was the most complete, best preserved skeleton of any erect-walking human ancestor that has ever been found. The completeness allowed for an accurate idea of how she should have been pieced together, what she looked like, and how old she was (Johanson 86). Until the discovery of Lucy and Australopithecus Ramidus, the oldest known human ancestor was Australopithecus Africanus, known as the Southern Ape from South Africa (Thomas 136). It was a little more than 3 million years old and was thought to be the missing link until the later discoveries (Lemonick 82). Raymond Dart discovered Australopithecus Africanus near Tuang, South Africa, in 1925 (Thomas 69). Another important finding was of ER-1470. ER-1470 was the oldest known Homo, Homo Habilis. Named after its discovery sight, ER-1470 was the oldest most complete representative of Homo Habilis. Richard E. Leakey located the skeleton near Lake Turkana in Kenya. It was named Homo Habilis because that meant skillful person. The 1.8 million old skeleton featured a large cranial capacity, meaning it was more intelligent than the older ancestors, a compact face, and small teeth. This species had grown a foot and a half since Lucy, reaching 4 1/2 to 5 feet tall. Its cranial capacity was 50 cubic inches, which was also a great amount larger than the older ancestors. Homo Habilis was the first to use tools, which were found, at the site. That’s just another reason for its title of skillful person (Thomas 140). Before Homo Sapiens, modern day humans, there was the Neanderthal Man. Its discovery was also extremely important discovery because of its young, 1 million-year-old age. Discovered in a small cave in the Neander Valley near Dusseldorf, Germany, Homo Neanderthalensis was 5 ½ feet tall with an even larger cranial capacity than Homo Habilis. Neanderthals made tools and controlled fire, two major achievements for primitive man (Thomas 44). These discoveries make up the strong evidence proving the theory of evolution. As more and more discoveries of primitive skulls and bones of human ancestors were made, an evolution scale could be created. The scale is a timeline of human ancestors beginning at the most apelike and moving to the most humanlike until the modern day human is finally reached. Starting 4.4 million years ago was Australopithecus Ramidus and ending with Homo Sapiens Sapiens, the anatomically modern human being. As the scale moves from oldest hominid to youngest, the species become taller, more erect in their posture, and their cranial capacity increases, indicating a increase in intelligence (Lemonick 82). These facts are just more evidence supporting the evolution theory. As scientists attempted to prove their ideas of adaptation and development, others still believed in the idea of creation. On May 7, 1925, in Tennessee, a popular schoolteacher by the name of John Scopes was arrested. He was charged with teaching the theory of evolution to his class on April 24. In court, Scopes’ strong defense penetrated the prosecution’s case when they stated that the Bible could not always be taken literally and that there was no way the world could have been created in six days. Even though Scopes was found guilty of contradicting creationism and the Bible’s teachings, the persuasion of the defense’s case brought up the major question of evolution versus creation. In 1996, the issue was revisited and now teachers have the right to teach both theories. The Attorney General said the constitutional separation of church and state would be violated if both theories were not acceptable. This trial was a major step for those who believed in evolution. The outcome eventually allowed for people to open their eyes and accept new ideas. The theory of evolution proved to be true (“Monkey”). The controversy over whether evolution or creation is the correct answer to human origins is a major topic of discussion and argument in today’s society. People are entitled to their beliefs, but a great deal of evidence and supporting information has confirmed the theory of evolution to be factual and accurate. By combining all of this information along with comparisons between man and ape and the discoveries of humanlike fossils, the truth is apparent. The theory of evolution is correct.

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Early Roman Architecture

DAVID HATFIELD ART HISTORY I FALL 2000 The Romans gained much of their engineering skill from the Etruscans and drew on Etruscan and Asian models for the semicircular arch. From them, the Romans learned the use of the keystone arch, which enabled them to build extremely strong and durable structures. Many of these engineering and architectural projects are still standing. Some are still in use after two thousand years like this bridge in Spain. Early Roman architects were influenced by Greek post-and-lintel construction. But the Greek design was limited in its capabilities to span large distances and being able to bear heavy loads while not falling down of its own weight. Post and lintel construction comprises a flat piece of stone bridging a space between two upright supports. Post and lintel supports have a flaw. When a heavy weight is placed on the middle of the span too much stress may be put on the stone and it can break in the middle. The Romans solved this problem by using a type of construction called voussoir arch with keystone. The engineering principle of the arch is quite simple. The circle is the strongest structural shape. The arch is just half of this perfect form. To create a voussoir arch, tapered stone blocks were cut then arranged like the diagram at the right. It was then stood up on its ends. The ends rested on piers made of stone blocks or bricks mortared together with pozzolana cement in the typical Roman arch bridge. The cement was named after a local mountain that the ingredients of the cement came from. The weight of the stone and concrete of the bridge itself compressed the tapered stones together, making the arch an extremely strong structure. During construction, the voussoir's were supported by a temporary wooden frame until the keystone was inserted. The Roman invention of the arch allowed architects to build larger structures than ever before. The extension of the arch idea lead to the development of domes, alcoves, and soffits. The arches and its derivatives were also employed in Triumphal Arches, aqueducts, bridges, houses, theaters, exedra, nynpheum, basilicas, thermal baths and temples. The Coliseum is a prime example of the many uses of arches. The arches allowed for a tall and wide structure to accommodate many people. The wide arches also enabled people to move in and out of the building safely and quickly. They also provided spaces for visitors to sit and places to display works of art. The Romans took the form of the simple arch and developed it into many forms. With their insight, modern day architecture has been functionally advanced its beauty enhanced and variety diversified.

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Dilation

Dilation Dilation has been used for millions of years. Even in the ancient times and still we use it until this day. An example of dilation used in ancient times is when ancient Egyptians built the pyramids. The pyramids were built in different sizes, but proportional. Now in this day and time we use dilation in many aspects. Dilation is used in both science and math. In science the microscope shows dilation, without microscopes many of the scientific discoveries wouldn't be possible! In math dilation mainly is used in Geometry to draw figure of different sizes in proportional sizes. In art dilation is used widely for, example architecture, paintings, and statues. In our everyday life we have many examples of dilation like, binoculars, toy cars, little ornaments that represent larger ones in a smaller version. This involves the use of dilations, that is, transformations of the plane that are either contractions or expansions about a point (the center of the dilation), by a constant (positive) ratio. A dilation can either be an expansion (if the ratio is larger than one) or a contraction (if it is smaller than one). Look at the figure below.Construct a point C in the plane, and mark it as the center of dilation. Now draw any polygonal figure, and dilate it about the center C by a fixed ratio (1/2, or 3, or whatever). Drag around this polygon, and observe how the image changes. In particular look at the vertices, their images and the center. Can you see any relation among them? To find the scale factor we have to add one side of both corresponding sides and divide them by the corresponding side of the preimage. For example, side A for the preimage is equal to 5 and side A for the image is equal to 10. Thus, 5+10/5 so the scale factor will equal 3!!!! Preimage Image When I first learned about dilation, I thought that is wasn't important and that there was no use for it at all, but doin this project made my perspective of dilation and Geomety change. Dilation is important. I have learned that dilation isn't used in just Geometry, it is used in science, math, art, and our everyday life. Dilation is used everywhere, without you even realizing it, but hopefully after reading this you have realized that we need dilation.

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Clark And Menefee, Architects

Maggie Cookman September 27, 2000 The Reid House was designed by W.G. Clark and Charles Menefee and built in John’s Island, SC in 1986. Menefee and Clark designed primarily in the American South. Clark and Menefee are known for their “tripartite vertical organization.” The base level normally consists of secondary bedroom(s)/studio spaces and services. The First floor is a “piano nobile of principal rooms with a double-height living space.” The attic level usually consists of the master bedroom and bath. The Reid House is set up in this fashion. The house is located in a modest setting, surrounded by house trailers and cheaply built houses. The image of the house was “derived from vernacular farm buildings as well as from more formal Palladian structures.” One author described the setting as “John’s Island, a peaceful landscape where truck farmers tend tomato fields carved out of scrub-pine and dwarf-cedar forests, and where the front yards of shacks are littered with junked cars, rusting agricultural machinery, and other decaying impedimenta of the Industrial Revolution.” The house is a three-story tower with two components. The first is a 20 ft. sq. section made of concrete block, housing the living and bedrooms, referred to as the “served space(s).” The second part, referred to as the “serving space(s),” is a wood-frame shed that holds the kitchen and the bathrooms. These two components are “joined at the fireplace and chimney, around which the stair winds.” The materials used for the house are inexpensive, in keeping with the surrounding structures. One section is made of concrete blocks, exposed on the inside and covered with waterproofing paint on the outside. The other part of the house is “sheathed in plywood and battens and its roof is covered in asphalt shingle.” The floors are painted pine, the interior partitions, painted plywood. The total cost of the house was $102,000, only $2,000 over the budget that the Reids had set. They wanted the house built because they wanted to move their two small children out of a trailer home, and they wanted to have a larger space in which they could manage their 120-acre horse farm. The total area of the house is only 1600 sq. ft. One author noted that the house “[reconciles] lofty aspirations and modest means.” W.G. Clark is not a native to Charleston. He worked for six years for Robert Venturi before going to work with Charles Menefee on the Middleton Inn for Charles Duell. This project was Clark’s first major work, and was more in tune with the work of Peter Eisenman. Charles Duell, a Middleton descendent, dreamed up the idea of the Middleton Inn, 15 miles outside of Charleston. He envisioned a guesthouse and conference center, and planned on seasonal guests who came for flower festivals and other annual events. The Inn was remote from city tourist attractions, and Clark “capitalized on this and made it a rural retreat in the woods.” The Inn was filled with Charleston details, which helped to bridge the gap between the city and the rural hideaway in the woods. These details included terra-cotta chimney pots, wooden shutters, stick-style furniture, special stucco called “slave coat,” and Charleston Green paint, which accentuated the building in the midst of the trees and growth in the surrounding woods. Clark and Menefee exemplified an uncommon American virtue, restraint. Their structures had a simple and clear formal order, and were compact in plan. Their belief was that generosity was achieved in section. In describing their architecture, one critic notes that Clark and Menefee’s buildings “distil a didactic language through which both formal meaning and construction can be revealed and understood.” It was also said that their houses were “idealized pavilions sitting solidly on the site in the classical manner.” Their designs were small and succinct, and interior finishes were sometimes rough, but their craft was excellent. Clark and Menefee succeeded in practical designs, while economizing on budgets and space.

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